Constitutional law

Constitutional Law is the study of foundational laws that govern the creation and execution of other laws by a government. Not all nations have constitutions; of those that do, not all have written constitutions (compare, for example, the written Constitution of the USA with the largely traditional but still very forceful Constitution of the United Kingdom, which arises from multiple sources including Magna Carta, the common law, and other customary sources).

A government is a body that creates rules for the orderly conduct of a society, and that is acknowledged by all (most?) as being legitimately able to use force to ensure compliance. A Constitution binds a government, limiting the contexts in which rules may be created and force may be applied. It is important to understand that no outside body enforces a Constitution.

United States Law

In the United States, Constitutional Law generally refers to the interpretation of Supreme Court rulings upholding or striking down legislative and executive actions. These are important because the lower courts in the US, which do most of the day-to-day judicial work, apply those rulings as law in other cases. This flows from the nature of the US as a common law system, where precedent carries great weight. Contrast this with civil law systems, where court rulings may be informed by prior rulings but judges feel no particular obligation to apply precedent.

Key concepts in general US law, at all court levels, include Standing and the Case or Controversy Requirement. These apply as strongly to Constitutional cases as to any others, and often a seemingly "civil rights" related issue is rejected by the courts for these reasons. They flow from Article III, Section 2 of the Constitution itself. Standing means that a person raising a constitutional issue must be someone who, if his or her assertion is correct, will personally suffer an infringement of his or her rights if the court does not intervene. This means that, except in unusual circumstances (see class action), one cannot sue on behalf of another. The Case or Controversy requirement means that there must be at least two adversarial parties and an actual problem between them. The effect is that US courts do not issue "advisory opinions" (but see Declaratory Judgment).

To these two concepts, Constitutional Law adds the State Action Requirement. Simply put, a private citizen cannot violate another private citizen's Constitutional rights. A case does not become a Constitutional issue unless one party can show that a local, state, or federal government agency or official was involved. For example, if a private citizen invades another citizen's house, the first citizen is liable to the second one in a lawsuit for trespassing; on the other hand, if a policeman invades a citizen's home without a warrant or probable cause, the police agency can be found liable for violating the citizen's Constitutional rights. The first example is merely a violation of the legal right to privacy; the second is a violation of the Constitution's prohibition on unreasonable searches and seizures. (Note here: Some cases which the Supreme Court accepts and decides involve Constitutional rights; others involve the interpretation of legal rights.)

Generally, when a case has cleared the hurdles of Standing, Case or Controversy and State Action, it will be heard by a trial court. The non-governmental party may raise claims or defenses relating to alleged Constitutional violations by the government. If the non-governmental party loses, the Constitutional issue may form part of the appeal. Eventually, a petition for certiorari may be sent to the Supreme Court. If the Supreme Court accepts the case, it will receive written briefs from each side (and any "amici curiae" or friends of the court--usually third parties with some expertise to bear on the subject) and schedule oral arguments. The Justices will closely question both parties. When the Court renders its decision, it will generally do so in a single opinion for the majority and one or more dissenting opinions. Each opinion sets forth the facts, prior decisions, and legal reasoning behind the position taken. The majority opinion constitutes binding precedent on all lower courts; when faced with very similar facts, they are bound to apply the same reasoning or face reversal of their decision by a higher court.

See also: United States Constitution