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Asian fetish

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An Asian fetish is a strong sexual or romantic preference for people of Asian descent or heritage. The term usually refers to women specifically of East or Southeast Asian descent,[1][2][3][4][5] though this may also include those of South Asian descent.[5][6]

The origins of sexually "fetishizing" the people of Asia are unclear. Male Dutch colonists fetishized Southeast Asian women in colonial Indonesia, on the basis of the darker skin and hair color of the local women.[7] Similar accounts were reported in other colonised territories such as British India where it was common for English men to have Indian mistresses against a backdrop where Indian women were sexualised through, what scholars describe as, a typical colonial gaze and viewed as seductive, sensual and exotic.[5] After World War 2, Japanese women gained prominence in American beauty pageants, at a time when large numbers of Japanese war brides were entering the United States.[8]

Targets of Asian fetish report a number of harms and psychological burdens as a result of being fetishized, such as anxiety and doubt about the motivations of those who display interest and difficulty asserting their individuality while being reduced to their race and gender.[9][10][11][12][13][14][15]

The derogatory term yellow fever (not be confused with the disease) is sometimes used to describe the fetishization of East Asians and Southeast Asian men/women by non-Asians, as well as having a preference for dating or marrying men/women of East Asian and Southeast Asian origin.[4] The usage of "yellow" stems from the color terminology for race that is sometimes applied to people of East Asian descent.

While this article and the underlying research largely focuses on heterosexual males with Asian fetish (and mostly White American heterosexual males), Asian fetish can also be homosexual, directed at Asian men, and be held by people of all races who are not Asian.[16]

History

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See also: Stereotypes of East Asians in the United States

Although there are multiple theories about the origin of the Asian fetish, it has been posited that modern Asian fetishism in the United States emerged in the aftermath of US-led wars in Asia.[17][18]

In the 1800s, after the opening of Japan by Matthew Perry, word began to spread in the United States about the seductive femininity of Asian women.[19] Nationalistic fears that Asian women would seduce White men and destroy White families led to the passage of the Page Act of 1875, which prevented Chinese women from entering the United States.[19][20] However, another purpose of the ban was to limit the reproduction of the Chinese working class in America.[21]

As early as the 1920s, it was noticed that Dutch men preferred South East Asian women over Dutch women.[7] When Indonesia was a colony of the Netherlands, a new beauty ideal was established, which ranked local women with light brown skin and lustrous black hair at the top.[7] The American consul general to Indonesia remarked that, to the average man, a mixed-race Indonesian woman was considered more attractive than a "pure" Dutch woman, because Dutch women's complexions were too pale.[7]

Miss Universe winner Akiko Kojima in 1959. Kojima's victory began the first era of representation of Asian women in the West.

After World War II, the U.S. military occupied Japan, and U.S. soldiers began to interact with Japanese women.[22] Although the American military initially forbid relations with Japanese women; the U.S. servicemen were "enamored" by the femininity of Japanese women, and formed relationships with them anyway.[22] There was a perception that Japanese women were superior to American women,[22] and there was a widespread sentiment "that a Japanese woman's heart was twice as big as those of her American sisters".[22]

In 1959, Akiko Kojima, a Japanese woman, became the first non-White woman to win the Miss Universe beauty pageant.[23] That same year, Miyoshi Umeki, also a Japanese woman, won an Academy Award. This period marked the beginning of the phenomenon known as the 'Oriental wave' – during which Asian women first gained prominence in Western media.[8] The wave mainstreamed a certain type of Asian femininity: slender, shy, and intelligent; yet also sexual.[8] It also marked the beginning of the end of White women's dominance as the mainstream beauty ideal in America.[8]

Terminology and usage of yellow fever

[edit]

A common term used for Asian fetishization (particularly with East and Southeast Asians) is yellow fever. The term is used as a derogatory pun on the disease of the same name, comparing those with a fetish for East and Southeast Asians or "Orientals" to people who are infected with a disease.[1] Yellow fever is used in Asian fetishization to refer to the color terminology of people of East Asian descent (and some Southeast Asians) because historically, persons of East Asian heritage have been described as "yellow people" based on the tone of their skin.[9] Hwang argues that this phenomenon is caused by the stereotyping of Asians in Western society. The term yellow fever is analogous to the term jungle fever, a derogatory expression used for racial fetishism associated with dating between different races.[9]

Alexandra Mathieu notes of two different types of fetishism that deal with race: in racial fetishism, stereotypes associated with race become coveted reality with value placed on it instead of mere construction, which differs from sexual fetishism, where body part or object is fetishized or imbued with sexual associations and value. Association of behavior would be racial fetishism, whereas sexual association of characteristic look would be sexual fetishism.[24]

Research on racial preferences

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In 2007, a study using a sample of 400 Columbia University students at a speed dating event did not find evidence of a preference among White men for women of East Asian descent. The study found that most people preferred to date within their own race.[25]

A 2013 study using a sample of 126,000 OkCupid users in the US found that all races initiated chats with their own race the most.[26]

Another 2013 study using a sample of 934,000 online daters in 20 US cities found that Asian women received the most messages on average, however, the authors also noted that own-race preference was the predominant trend. The authors noted that their results "contradict the popular belief that [...] white men prefer Asian women over white women".[27]

A 2015 study using a sample of 58,880 online daters in 9 Western European countries found that non-Hispanic White women were the most preferred group of women by far, followed by Hispanic and then Asian women. This tendency surpassed own-race preference as the predominant trend.[28]

A 2018 study using a sample of 187,000 online daters in 4 US cities found that Asian women were the most desired group of women.[29][30]

In 2012, a UK study found that Asian women were rated as more attractive than White and Black women. It was proposed that because Asian women's features are perceived as more feminine, they are considered more attractive than other women, which could explain the high rate of interracial marriages between Asian women and White men in the UK and US.[31] A 2018 facial manipulation experiment conducted in Australia was consistent with these hypotheses, finding both Asian and White participants chose to reduce Asian women's "masculine" facial traits less than White women's, which the authors conclude suggests that Asian faces may be more feminine to begin with.[32]

In contrast, a 2013 Australian study on facial attractiveness with Asian and White participants found that Asian and White women's faces were not different in attractiveness overall, although a slight own-race bias was observed. However, when rating composite faces (the average of many faces, grouped by race, as opposed to real faces), all participants rated the composite faces more highly and rated White women's composite faces the highest. In a follow-up experiment, the researchers found that there was no difference in Asian and White women's perceived facial femininity.[33]

A 2008 American study on female facial attractiveness with majority White participants (27 men and 45 women; with a significant proportion of Asian, and few Black, Hispanic, or Middle-Eastern participants) found that White women's faces were rated most attractive. The study showed gradations of computer-generated racial mixes to the participants in increments of one-quarter. The top three rated faces were 100% White, 75% White 25% Black, and 75% White 25% Asian. To the researchers' surprise, Asian women's faces were rated significantly less attractive than White or Black faces in this study.[34]

While the perceived femininity and sexual capital of Asian women may depend on the population studied, Zheng (2016) argues that attraction is influenced significantly by culture, stating "sexualized stereotypes of Asian women contributes to an individual’s sexually preferring them, even if that contribution is not obvious or accessible to introspection."[35]

Effects of fetishization

[edit]

Encounters with Asian fetishists are a familiar experience for many Asian-American women.[10][18][36][37] Asian women may pick up on clues, such as a history of only dating Asians, even warning each other about potential hotspots for Asian fetishists. While several authors have complicated feelings about the subject, [38][39][40] most express frustration at opinions from non-Asians that fetishization is a good thing,[10][11][12][13] pointing out its negative aspects and deconstructing the harmful meanings it entails.[9]

Targets of Asian fetish report feeling depersonalized or homogenized, making them interchangeable with any other Asian woman.[10][11][12][13][14][15] Depersonalization is particularly negative in a romantic context, where people want to be recognized as individuals.[9] Depersonalization is a closely related concept to objectification. Some authors have written that the objectification of Asian women can lead to violence as well if the women aren't seen as real people but just as objects.[41][42][43][44]

Another reported harm of Asian fetishization is the feeling of being "othered", or conceived of outside mainstream norms. Possessing "exotic beauty", as opposed to just "beauty", carries the meaning that the type of beauty is necessarily linked to being Asian.[10][11] If this is the case, one can only attain beauty by fulfilling stereotypes about Asians. The struggle to have sexuality, but not be defined by racial sexuality, becomes very complicated.[9][40]

These feelings and the psychological burden they entail can persist even when romantic suitors hold no fetishistic intent. The possibility of Asian fetish or even the perception of such looms in both men's and women's minds, creating anxiety and potentially discouraging romantic pursuit.[9][39]

Nonetheless, some Asian women may embrace certain stereotypes about Asians, such as intelligence and rising Asian economic power. Others may find advantage in wielding the sexual power it grants, creating strategies to turn the tables and exploit the men who are drawn by racialized femininity.[45][14][38]

Some research has sought to determine how American culture might affect Asian-American body satisfaction. No clear consensus exists. In a meta-analysis of research, Asian-American women showed near-zero difference in average body satisfaction compared to White American women.[46]

Fetish and interracial marriage

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Kumiko Nemoto writes that since the beginning of the twentieth century, there has been a stereotype of the Asian woman as subservient, loyal, and family oriented.[47][48] After World War II, particularly feminine images of Asian women made interracial marriage between Asian American women and White men popular.[47] Asian femininity and White masculinity are seen as a sign of modern middle-class manhood.[47][48] Postcolonial and model minority femininity may attract some White men to Asian and Asian American women and men see this femininity as the perfect marital dynamic.[47]  Some White men racialize Asian women as "good wives" or "model minorities" because of how Asian women are stereotyped as being particularly feminine.[47][48]

In preparation for a documentary on Asian fetish called Seeking Asian Female, Chinese-American filmmaker Debbie Lum interviewed non-Asian men who posted online personal ads exclusively seeking Asian women. Things that the men found appealing in Asian women included long black hair, a "mysterious" appearance with dark eyes, possibly increased consideration for their partner, subtlety and quietness, as well as Asian women's eyelids. Lum characterized the preconceived stereotype associated with an Asian fetish as an obsession with seeking "somebody submissive, traditional, docile... the perfect wife who is not going to talk back", but found she had to overcome stereotypes and expectations just like the participants did.[49]

In interviews done by Bitna Kim, "Caucasian" men explain their fetish for Asian women. The Caucasian men interviewed fantasize that an Asian woman possesses both beauty and brains, that she is "sexy, intelligent, successful, professional, caring, and family oriented"; that she does not wear "White girl clothes" and heavy makeup, and that they are not high maintenance.[50] Hence, the men believe that Asian women have respectable mannerisms.[50] These men see Asian women to be exotic, thus desirable, because of their supposed mysterious beauty and possession of a physical appearance perceived to be petite.[50] Sexually, the men in these interviews had a commonality. While almost all disagreed with describing Asian women as submissive, they all believed that Asian women have submissive sex ("liking to explore new positions, being willing to experiment, or enjoying kinky sex, such as spanking"). They believed that an Asian woman was agreeable and did not mind pleasing men.[50] These interviews show that some "Caucasian" men with Asian fetish believe that an Asian woman embodies a perfect wife as a "princess in public and a whore in the bedroom".[50]

Historically, the number of Thai women marrying Western men began to rise in the 1950s and 1960s as a result of Prime Minister Sarit Thanarat's economic policies which attracted foreign investment and Western men to Thailand. There is a social stigma in the country against Thai women marrying White men, who are also referred to as farang (a term used for people of European origin), but research published in 2015 indicated that an increasing number of young middle-class Thai women were marrying foreign men. A generation earlier, Thai women marrying foreign men had mostly been working class.[51]

Sources indicate that Sri Lanka is popular among Western "marriage bureaus" which specialize in the pairing of men who were "Europeans, North Americans and other westerners" with foreign women.[52] The first and largest wave of Sri Lankan immigrants to Denmark were Sinhalese women who came to the country in the 1970s to marry Danish men they had met back in Sri Lanka.[53]

Filipina, Thai, and Sri Lankan women have traveled as mail-order brides to Europe, Australia, and New Zealand.[54] Venny Villapando writes that many of the countries affected by the modern mail-order bride business, typically those in East and South-East Asia, have a history of US military involvement. Soldiers stationed in these countries developed ideas of Asian women as sex workers, bargirls and geishas, and applied the resultant stereotype of sexualized obedience to Asian-American women. The marketing techniques used by mail-order bride companies generally reinforce this stereotype.[55] Statistics detailing the sponsorship of spouses and fiancées to Australia from 1988 to 1991 show that more women from the Philippines, Singapore, Malaysia, Sri Lanka, Vietnam, Indonesia, South Korea, and India were sponsored for citizenship than men from the same countries.[56]

Tourism

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Sex tourism refers to a phenomenon where individuals, generally heterosexual men from wealthier countries, will travel to other countries, in search for sexual experiences. Several countries in Southeast Asia, particularly with strong economic disparities with western countries, have become destinations for sex tourism. Some of these countries include Thailand, the Philippines, Cambodia and Vietnam.[57][58][irrelevant citation]

Data published in 1999 indicated that an estimated 200,000 to 400,000 German men annually traveled abroad for sex tourism, with the Philippines, Thailand, South Korea, Sri Lanka, and Hong Kong as their main destinations.[59] For some White men, sex tourism to countries such as Thailand is built around a fantasy that includes the possibility of finding love and romance. According to Dr. David Jedlicka's 1983 study, this idea is based on the stereotype of "the Oriental woman" who is considered to be beautiful and sexually exciting as well as caring, compliant, and submissive.[60] Kimberly Hoang writes that there may be mistaken conflation of "submission" with "care".[61]

Although not as widely recognized as male sex tourism, there have also been cases of western female sex tourism in Indonesia, including Bali.[62][63]

Anecdotal reports have stated that some western women visiting South Korea seek Korean boyfriends in the hope of fulfilling a fantasy based on K-drama archetypes. This is one aspect of a larger trend called "Hallyu tourists". Some authors are concerned that this trend simplifies Korean men into stereotypes, ignoring their complexity as individuals and the realities of relationships.[64][65][66]

[edit]

Mirroring the larger mainstream culture, within hip-hop culture, Asian women have long been fetishized.[67][68][69][70][71] The hip hop group 2 Live Crew eroticized Asian women in their 1988 hit single "Me So Horny", which topped the charts in the Netherlands.[72] The song was so sexually explicit that the State of Florida banned its sale, however the ban was later overturned after 2 Live Crew filed a free speech lawsuit.[73][74] In later songs, 2 Live Crew spoke about their fetish for Asian women, and their desire to have sex with Japanese women.[67] Asian models were featured prominently in their music videos.[67]

According to Marenda Tran, Asian women in the media tend to be portrayed in two ways: as an exotic foreigner, docile and nonthreatening and sexual but also innocent; or as the nerd who is still aesthetically pleasing, but also emotionless and career-oriented. This leads many Asian women to believe that they have to be in one of these boxes. It tends to convey the message that if they are smart, they cannot be sexual; or, if they are sexual, they tend to not be aware of it.[75] By the late 2010s, movies such as Crazy Rich Asians and The Farewell began to break these boundaries, but they are movies that center around the Asian experience, allowing for more diversity across Asian characters.

In her essay "Hateful Contraries: Media Images of Asian Women", British filmmaker Pratibha Parmar comments that the media's imagery of Asian women is "contradictory" in that it represents them as "completely dominated by their men, mute and oppressed" while also showing them as "sexually erotic creatures".[76]

In her essay Lotus Blossoms Don't Bleed: Images of Asian Women, American filmmaker Renee Tajima-Peña identifies two basic stereotypes of Asian women in the United States.. The "Lotus Blossom Baby" is a feminine and delicate sexual-romantic object. In contrast, the "Dragon Lady" is treacherous and devious, and in some cases, a madam. Tajima suggests that this view of Asian women contributes to the existence of the Asian mail-order bride industry in the US.[77]

Pornography

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Porn performers Saya Song, Jade Kush, and Venus Lux have voiced their objections to being cast in heavily stereotyped roles. They point toward creator-oriented platforms in the hope that they will grant performers autonomy.[78]

Asa Akira was uncomfortable with fetishization early in her career, but has since grown to embrace it, saying, "I mean, it’s not like guys are watching my movies and laughing. They’re watching my movies and masturbating."[79] Mika Tan sees Asian fetishization in porn as a relatively harmless replacement for "trolling the bars with the intent of getting rid of [...] sexual frustrations on any woman who happens along". Her opinion is that "Porn does not create fetishes, it caters to them."[80]

Philosophy and sociology scholars have also examined Asian fetishization in porn. In Robin Zheng's view, the ubiquity and custom-tailored nature of internet pornography "plays a central role in licensing the self-identification with and public recognition of racialized sexual preferences like yellow fever". She further states that the pornography industry stands to benefit from encouraging Asian fetish as a distinct category to suit their marketing needs.[81]

Some scholars have theorized the ways in which fetishization in pornography may exacerbate racial stereotypes, with others highlighting the ways Asian porn performers are able to challenge racial stereotypes within their films, while also refuting the idea that they themselves have no control or agency.[82] Zheng says that there is "no way to win" in this scenario: that Asian presence and absence in pornography both have significant downsides.[81]

Gossett and Byrne conducted a content analysis study of 31 "internet rape sites" in 2002 and found that thirty-four of the 56 clear images analyzed depicted Asian women as victims, and that nearly half of the sites contained either text references or images of Asian women.[83][84][85] In 2016, Zhou and Paul looked at a sample of 3053 videos from XVideos, and found that the 170 videos in the Asian women category had much less aggression, and less objectification than other categories, but that the performers also had less agency in their scenes.[86] In 2019, Shor and Golriz looked at a sample of 172 videos from Pornhub, and they found that the 25+ videos in the Asian/Japanese category had considerably more aggression than those of other categories.[87] Miller & McBain and Rothman deem that findings of the depictions of Asian women and race in pornography aren't consistent or comprehensive.[88][89]

See also

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Citations

[edit]
  1. ^ a b "Fetishization of East and Southeast Asian Women". North Carolina Asian Americans Together. 23 March 2021. Retrieved 20 March 2022.
  2. ^ Alolika (21 February 2014). "Playboy Petrarch: Racial Fetishism and K-pop". SeoulBeats. Retrieved 24 March 2014.
  3. ^ King, Ritchie (20 November 2013). "The uncomfortable racial preferences revealed by online dating". Quartz. Retrieved 30 March 2014.
  4. ^ a b Ren, Yuan (July 2014). "'Yellow fever' fetish: Why do so many white men want to date a Chinese woman?".
  5. ^ a b c S. Chou, Rosalind (5 January 2015). Asian American Sexual Politics: The Construction of Race, Gender, and Sexuality. Rowman & Littlefield. p. 65. ISBN 9781442209251.
  6. ^ Ashoka Bandarage (1998). "Women and capitalist development in Sri Lanka, 1977-87". Bulletin of Concerned Asian Scholars. 20 (2): 73–74. doi:10.1080/14672715.1988.10404449.
  7. ^ a b c d Gouda, Frances (2008). Dutch Culture Overseas: Colonial Practice in the Netherlands Indies, 1900–1942. Equinox Publishing. p. 167. ISBN 978-979-3780-62-7.
  8. ^ a b c d Lim, Shirley Jennifer (2022). "5. Riding the Crest of an Oriental Wave: Foreign-Born Asian "Beauty"". A Feeling of Belonging. New York University Press. pp. 155–188. doi:10.18574/nyu/9780814765241.003.0009. ISBN 978-0-8147-6524-1.
  9. ^ a b c d e f g Zheng 2016
  10. ^ a b c d e Chang, Vickie (2 November 2006). "Yellow Fever – OC Weekly". Retrieved 15 September 2024.
  11. ^ a b c d Ryu, Jenna. "The dangers of dating as an Asian American woman: 'Fetishization isn't appreciation'". USA TODAY. Retrieved 10 March 2024.
  12. ^ a b c sMash, Lauren (25 September 2013). "Yellow Fever: Dating As an Asian Woman". Everyday Feminism. Retrieved 15 September 2024.
  13. ^ a b c Lu, Chin (2 June 2013). "Why Yellow Fever Is Different Than "Having a Type"". Medium. Retrieved 15 September 2024.
  14. ^ a b c Cai, Aleta (2 June 2016). "How It Feels To Be Fetishized As An Asian Sex Worker". Refinery29. Retrieved 15 September 2024.
  15. ^ a b Tu, Jessie (28 November 2018). "Because I am small and Asian, I am fetishised by some white men". Retrieved 15 September 2024.
  16. ^ Jackson, Peter A (January 2000). "'That's what rice queens study!' white gay desire and representing Asian homosexualities". Journal of Australian Studies. 24 (65): 181–188. doi:10.1080/14443050009387602.
  17. ^ Woan 2008
  18. ^ a b Ramirez, Rachel (19 March 2021). "The history of fetishizing Asian women". Vox. Retrieved 15 September 2024.
  19. ^ a b Thomas, Sabrina (December 2021). Scars of War: The Politics of Paternity and Responsibility for the Amerasians of Vietnam. U of Nebraska Press. p. 41. ISBN 978-1-4962-2935-9.
  20. ^ Moore, John H. (2008). Encyclopedia of Race and Racism. Macmillan Reference USA/Thomson Gale. p. 213. ISBN 978-0-02-866021-9.
  21. ^ Ross, Susan Dente (2011). Images that Injure: Pictorial Stereotypes in the Media. ABC-CLIO. p. 144. ISBN 978-0-313-37892-8. "Having learned from their experiences with African Americans who reproduced and demanded citizenship, education and land, the U.S. government sought to fully control the Asian-American worker by controlling their reproduction and their citizenship rights through laws that prohibited Asian-American female migration."
  22. ^ a b c d Nagatomo, Diane Hawley (7 April 2016). Identity, Gender and Teaching English in Japan. Multilingual Matters. p. 69. ISBN 978-1-78309-522-3.
  23. ^ Bardsley, J. (2014). Women and Democracy in Cold War Japan. SOAS Studies in Modern and Contemporary Japan. Bloomsbury Publishing. p. 153. ISBN 978-1-4725-3381-4. Retrieved 24 May 2024. ...the first Japanese, the first Asian, and, in more recent American terminology, the first woman of color to win the Miss Universe contest...
  24. ^ Mathieu, Alexandra (12 August 2013). "For The Last Time, No, I Do Not Have An Asian Fetish". Thought Catalog. Archived from the original on 19 June 2017. Retrieved 6 October 2024.
  25. ^ Fisman, Raymond; Iyengar, Sheena S.; Kamenica, Emir; Simonson, Itamar (January 2008). "Racial Preferences in Dating". Review of Economic Studies. 75 (1): 117–132. doi:10.1111/j.1467-937X.2007.00465.x. ISSN 0034-6527.
  26. ^ Lewis, Kevin (19 November 2013). "The limits of racial prejudice". Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences. 110 (47): 18814–18819. Bibcode:2013PNAS..11018814L. doi:10.1073/pnas.1308501110. ISSN 0027-8424. PMC 3839718. PMID 24191008.
  27. ^ Lin, Ken-Hou; Lundquist, Jennifer (July 2013). "Mate Selection in Cyberspace: The Intersection of Race, Gender, and Education". American Journal of Sociology. 119 (1): 183–215. doi:10.1086/673129. ISSN 0002-9602.
  28. ^ Potârcă, Gina; Mills, Melinda (June 2015). "Racial Preferences in Online Dating across European Countries". European Sociological Review. 31 (3): 326–341 (see supplementary material, figure A2.2). doi:10.1093/esr/jcu093. ISSN 0266-7215.
  29. ^ Nedelman, Michael (8 August 2018). "Online dating study: Are you chasing people 'out of your league'?". CNN. "Race plays heavily into the results, with Asian women and white men being the most sought after overall."
  30. ^ Bruch, Elizabeth E.; Newman, M. E. J. (3 August 2018). "Aspirational pursuit of mates in online dating markets". Science Advances. 4 (8): eaap9815. arXiv:1808.04840. Bibcode:2018SciA....4.9815B. doi:10.1126/sciadv.aap9815. ISSN 2375-2548. PMC 6082652. PMID 30101188.
  31. ^ Lewis, Michael B. (9 February 2012). "A Facial Attractiveness Account of Gender Asymmetries in Interracial Marriage". PLOS ONE. 7 (2): e31703. Bibcode:2012PLoSO...731703L. doi:10.1371/journal.pone.0031703. ISSN 1932-6203. PMC 3276508. PMID 22347504.
  32. ^ Stephen, Ian D.; Salter, Darby L. H.; Tan, Kok Wei; Tan, Chrystalle B. Y.; Stevenson, Richard J. (3 July 2018). "Sexual dimorphism and attractiveness in Asian and White faces". Visual Cognition. 26 (6): 442–449. doi:10.1080/13506285.2018.1475437. ISSN 1350-6285. The perception that White faces are more masculine than Asian faces provides support for Lewis' (2012) hypothesis that interracial marriage can be explained by differences in sexual dimorphism and thus advances our understanding of the gender asymmetries in interracial marriage.
  33. ^ Burke, Darren; Nolan, Caroline; Hayward, William Gordon; Russell, Robert; Sulikowski, Danielle (1 October 2013). "Is There an Own-Race Preference in Attractiveness?". Evolutionary Psychology. 11 (4): 855–872. doi:10.1177/147470491301100410. ISSN 1474-7049. PMC 10481032. PMID 23948346.
  34. ^ Belletti, N. E., Wade, T. J. (1 January 2008). "Racial characteristics and female facial attractiveness perception among United States university students". Racism in the 21st Century. pp. 93–124. doi:10.1007/978-0-387-79098-5_6. ISBN 978-0-387-79097-8.
  35. ^ Zheng 2016, p. 406: "It is this double feminization that increases the sexual capital of Asian women but not that of Asian men, a fact perfectly borne out in the oft-noted greater number of relationships between Asian women and White men compared to the number of Asian men in relationships with White women (e.g., Feliciano, Robnett, and Komaie 2009), in attractiveness ratings that rank Asians highest among women but lowest among men (Lewis 2012), and in the greater representation of Asian women compared to Asian men in popular media (Schug et al. 2015). This cross-disciplinary body of work supports the claim that it would be utterly unrealistic to deny that lengthy exposure to a culture historically saturated with sexualized stereotypes of Asian women contributes to an individual’s sexually preferring them, even if that contribution is not obvious or accessible to introspection."
  36. ^ Pham, Elise (1 April 2021). "Here's how pop culture has perpetuated harmful stereotypes of Asian women". TODAY.com. Retrieved 15 September 2024.
  37. ^ Fang, Janet. "The Deadly Consequences of Hypersexualizing Asian Women". Scientific American. Retrieved 15 September 2024.
  38. ^ a b Eng, Phoebe (2000). Warrior Lessons: An Asian American Woman's Journey Into Power. Atria Books. pp. 127–128. ISBN 978-0-671-00958-8. Retrieved 2 October 2023. Not all of us agree, for instance, that the current trend of "Asian fetish" is bad. In fact, for some of us, the new visibility of Asian women, even though stereotyped, can actually be liberating. As Melissa de la Cruz wrote... "I find something deliciously wicked and liberating about it...In one breath it banishes the image of the asexual, four-eyed, Asian superbrain forever, replacing it with a certain prurient attractiveness reserved only for femmes fatales. Asian fetish? Where do I sign on?"
  39. ^ a b Chen, Vivienne (9 September 2012). "So, He Likes You Because You're Asian". HuffPost. Retrieved 15 September 2024.
  40. ^ a b Kwan, SanSan (Winter 2002). "Scratching the Lotus Blossom Itch". Tessera. 31: 41–48.
  41. ^ Zheng 2016, p. 405: "Even worse, stereotypes about Asian women render them particularly vulnerable to sexual harassment and violence by men who target them on that basis (Cho 1997; Lee 1996; Patel 2009; Park 2012; Woan 2007). There is thus ample reason to be morally concerned about sexualized racial stereotypes of Asian women."
  42. ^ Woan 2008, p. 275: "The history of Western imperialism in Asia and its lingering effects present the greatest source of inequality for diasporic Asian women today. White sexual imperialism, through rape and war, created the hyper-sexualized stereotype of the Asian woman. This stereotype in turn fostered the over-prevalence of Asian women in pornography, the mail-order bride phenomenon, the Asian fetish syndrome, and worst of all, sexual violence against Asian women."
  43. ^ Forbes, Yang & Lim 2023, p. 2: "The racialized sexual objectification of Asian women is reinforced by the alarming rates of sex trafficking of Asian women to the U.S. and contributes to the other types of racialized and gendered violence experienced by Asian American women, such as intimate partner violence and sexual assault. The murder of six Asian female massage parlor workers in Atlanta in 2021 was a devastating reminder that these intersectional stereotypes exist to empower white men to “eliminate the temptation” of Asian women’s bodies."
  44. ^ Fang 2021: "It was such a struggle even to get the shooting recognized as race related. Six of the people he killed were women of Asian descent, yet a sheriff’s deputy with a history of anti-Asian Facebook posts told us that there was no evidence the murders were racially motivated—that the shooter, who described himself as a sex addict, had been having a “bad day.” Lots of other white men, including some of my husband’s journalism colleagues, were quick to comment that we shouldn’t jump to conclusions. Well, that’s bullshit. Even for people who did recognize the shootings as an act of racism, I had to explain to them that it’s not just racism. It’s a racialized misogyny that’s very, very specific to Asian women."
  45. ^ Zheng, Robin (2022). Earp, B.D.; Chambers, Claire; Watson, Lori (eds.). The Routledge Handbook of Philosophy of Sex and Sexuality. Routledge Handbooks in Philosophy. Taylor & Francis. p. 331. ISBN 978-1-000-58202-4. Retrieved 8 April 2024. But the targets of racial fetish can also exploit this erotic capital to their own economic advantage, as in the trope of Singaporean "Sarong Party Girls", who deliberately chase after white men (Hudson 2015)..."
  46. ^ Grabe, Shelly; Hyde, Janet Shibley (July 2006). "Ethnicity and body dissatisfaction among women in the United States: A meta-analysis". Psychological Bulletin. 132 (4): 622–640. doi:10.1037/0033-2909.132.4.622. ISSN 0033-2909. PMID 16822170. "For example, several researchers have reported that White women are significantly more dissatisfied with their bodies than are their Asian American counterparts (e.g., Akan & Grilo, 1995; Franzoi &Chang, 2002; Mintz & Kashubeck, 1999; Tylka, 2004), whereas others have reported comparable levels of dissatisfaction between the two groups (e.g., Arriaza & Mann, 2001; Cash, Melnyk, &Hrabosky, 2004; Robinson et al., 1996; Siegel, 2002)."
  47. ^ a b c d e Nemoto, Kumiko (2009). Racing Romance: Love, Power, and Desire among Asian American/White Couples. Rutgers University Press. ISBN 9780813548524.
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  55. ^ Villapando, Venny (2000). "The Business of Selling Mail Order Brides". In Plott, Michelle; Umansky, Lauri (eds.). Making Sense of Women's Lives: An Introduction to Women's Studies. Rowman & Littlefield. p. 182. ISBN 9780939693535.
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  66. ^ "The Rise of K-Pop and the Fetishization of Korean Men – Affinity Magazine". Retrieved 10 March 2024. This is not some sort of "yellow fever" or "koreaboo" thing nor any other misnomer given to fetishization. This is the glorification and the demeaning treatment of Korean men and must be chided.
  67. ^ a b c Ho, F.; Mullen, B.V. (2008). Afro Asia: Revolutionary Political and Cultural Connections Between African Americans and Asian Americans. Duke University Press. p. 301. ISBN 978-0-8223-4281-6. Retrieved 13 January 2024. Mirroring the larger white mainstream culture, some practitioners of hip hop have borrowed liberally from Asian culture, or have borrowed from the white mainstream's appropriation of Asian culture. The group 2 Live Crew sampled the Vietnamese woman from Full Metal Jacket saying me love you long time. Rappers sport kanji tattoos, sample Asian music, wear Asian clothes, brag about being accepted in Japan, brag about all the Japanese women they've slept with, admit fetishes for Asian women, and put Asian models in their videos.
  68. ^ Sciullo, N.J. (2018). Communicating Hip-Hop: How Hip-Hop Culture Shapes Popular Culture. Bloomsbury Publishing. p. 48. ISBN 979-8-216-06351-3. Retrieved 12 January 2024. The woman of color as whore was easily transplanted onto Latina women and is egregiously represented in the tropes of the Jezebel and the Asian school girl.
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  78. ^ Dickson, EJ (31 March 2021), Asian porn performers are sick of being fetishized in racist roles
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  83. ^ Gossett, Jennifer Lynn; Byrne, Sarah (2002). ""Click Here": A Content Analysis of Internet Rape Sites". Gender and Society. 16 (5): 698. doi:10.1177/089124302236992. ISSN 0891-2432. JSTOR 3081955. S2CID 39506826. "In contrast to the invisible perpetrator, race/ethnicity is of paramount importance in constructing the image of the victim. In our sample, 34 of the images (pictures that are clear and in which the race can be identified) depicted Asian women. Eleven of the sites advertise Asian women in their text through words such as Asian, Japanese, and Chinese. Nearly half (15) of the sites either a text reference to Asian women or an image of an Asian woman. In contrast, no images of Black women being raped were found, although one link to a site that advertises "Black Gang Rape," which is ambiguous as to the victims or the perpetrators are Black. Twenty-four images of white women were found among those where race could be identified. This probably understates the number of images of white women in our sample because no sites specifically advertised white women. One possible exception is a site that offered images of blondes, which is likely to be an advertisement for whites. Only one site has a specific reference to Hispanic women in its text, and no sites identify women as Native American or Indian."
  84. ^ Forbes, Yang & Lim 2023, p. 2: Disparaging Asian women to images of subservience and hypersexuality is not only represented in mainstream media but it permeates the pornography world. A content analysis found that Asian women are the most represented female victims within violent pornography and rape websites (30).
  85. ^ Woan 2008, p. 292: "Many scholars warn that race-specific pornography contributes to race-specific sexual violence. Since the overwhelming majority of violent pornography features Asian women in particular, it follows that Asian women are at even greater risk of sexual violence due to their role in violent pornography. Helen Zia, a noted social activist, suggests a direct connection between racial-sexual stereotyped pornography and actual violence against Asian women. Additionally, Kandice Chuh argues that 'because Asian/American women are depicted as always consenting, they cannot be raped in the eyes of the law.'"
  86. ^ Zhou, Yanyan; Paul, Bryant (16 July 2016). "Lotus Blossom or Dragon Lady: A Content Analysis of "Asian Women" Online Pornography". Sexuality & Culture. 20 (4): 1083–1100. doi:10.1007/s12119-016-9375-9. ISSN 1095-5143.
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  88. ^ Miller, Dan J.; McBain, Kerry Anne (3 April 2022). "The Content of Contemporary, Mainstream Pornography: A Literature Review of Content Analytic Studies" (PDF). American Journal of Sexuality Education. 17 (2): 219–256. doi:10.1080/15546128.2021.2019648.
  89. ^ Rothman, Emily F. (2021). Pornography and public health. New York: Oxford university press. ISBN 9780190075477.

References

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Further reading

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