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'''Atheism Conquered''' ({{lang-la|Atheismus Triumphatus}}) is a philosophical work by the Italian [[Dominican Order|Dominican]] philosopher [[Tommaso Campanella]]. [[Robert Greene (American author)|Robert Greene]] categorizes it as "a book attacking [[free-thinkers]], [[Machiavellians]], [[Calvinists]], and [[heretics]] of all stripes."<ref>Robert Greene, ''The 48 Laws of Power''.</ref> |
'''Atheism Conquered''' ({{lang-la|Atheismus Triumphatus}}) is a philosophical work by the Italian [[Dominican Order|Dominican]] philosopher [[Tommaso Campanella]]. [[Robert Greene (American author)|Robert Greene]] categorizes it as "a book attacking [[free-thinkers]], [[Machiavellians]], [[Calvinists]], and [[heretics]] of all stripes."<ref>Robert Greene, ''The 48 Laws of Power''.</ref> |
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The work was written in [[Italian language|Italian]] in 1605-1607, shortly after Campanella's release from imprisonment for [[heresy]] and [[sedition]]. The former monk was [[torture]]d by the Spanish Inquisition with the infamous [[la veglia]] which involved suspending a victim by the arms over a giant shaft studded with spikes |
The work was written in [[Italian language|Italian]] in 1605-1607, shortly after Campanella's release from imprisonment for [[heresy]] and [[sedition]]. The former monk was [[torture]]d by the Spanish [[Inquisition]] with the infamous [[la veglia]] which involved suspending a victim by the arms over a giant shaft studded with spikes. |
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After several years of torture, father Campanella finally had a religious revelation -- that he had been wrong to question the Holy Church all along! From that point on, he dedicated his life to serving the interests of the [[Catholic Church]], and to fighting blasphemies and hereseys against the [[Pope Urban VIII]], who helped him get released from prison, and interceded on his behalf with [[Philip IV]] of [[Spain]]. |
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Because of its objective — combating heresy — the Inquisition had jurisdiction only over baptised members of the Church (which, however, encompassed the vast majority of the population in Catholic countries). Secular courts could still try non-Christians for [[blasphemy]]. (Most [[witch trials]] went through secular courts.) |
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Different areas faced different situations with regard to heresies and suspicion of heresies. Most of Medieval Western and Central Europe had a long-standing veneer of Catholic standardisation over traditional non-Christian practices,{{Clarify|date=November 2009}} with intermittent localised occurrences of different ideas (such as [[Catharism]] or [[Platonism in the Renaissance|Platonism]]) and periodic [[Religious antisemitism|anti-Semitic]]/[[anti-Judaism|anti-Judaic]] activity. Exceptionally, Portugal and Spain in the late Middle Ages consisted largely of multicultural territories fairly recently re-conquered from the [[Islam]]ic states of [[Al-Andalus]] control, and the new Christian authorities could not assume that all their subjects would suddenly become and remain orthodox Catholics. So the Inquisition in [[Iberian Peninsula|Iberia]], in the lands of the [[Reconquista]] counties and kingdoms like [[County of Portugal|Portugal]], [[Kingdom of León|Leon]], [[Kingdom of Castile|Castile]] and [[Kingdom of Aragon|Aragon]], had a special socio-political basis as well as more conventional religious motives.<!---I don't think Portugal was lumped together with Spain in the Inquisitions---> With the [[Protestant Reformation]], Catholic authorities became much more ready to suspect heresy in any new ideas,<ref> |
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{{cite book |
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|last= Stokes |
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|first= Adrian Durham |
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|authorlink= Adrian Stokes (critic) |
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|title= Michelangelo: a study in the nature of art |
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|url= http://books.google.com/books?hl=en&lr=&id=_E7epqLi2CwC |
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|accessdate= 2009-11-26 |
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|edition= 2 |
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|series= Routledge classics |
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|origyear= 1955 |
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|year= 2002 |
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|publisher= Routledge |
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|isbn= 9780415267656 |
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|page= 39 |
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|pages= 166 |
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|quote= Ludovico is so immediately settled in heaven by the poet that some commentators have divined that Michelangel is voicing heresy, that is to say, the denial of purgatory. |
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}} |
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</ref> |
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including those of [[Renaissance humanism]], |
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<ref> |
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Erasmus, the arch-Humanist of the Rennaissance, came under suspicion of heresy, see |
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{{cite book |
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|last= Olney |
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|first= Warren |
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|title= Desiderius Erasmus; Paper Read Before the Berkeley Club, March 18, 1920. |
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|url= http://books.google.com/books?hl=en&lr=&id=EdsdOSs6VRgC |
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|accessdate= 2009-11-26 |
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|year= 2009 |
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|publisher= BiblioBazaar |
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|isbn= 9781113405036 |
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|page= 15 |
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|pages= 32 |
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|quote= Thomas More, in an elaborate defense of his friend, written to a cleric who accused Erasmus of heresy, seems to admit that Erasmus was probably the author of ''Julius''. |
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}} |
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</ref> |
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previously strongly supported by many at the top of the Church hierarchy. The extirpation of heretics became a much broader and more complex enterprise, complicated by the politics of territorial Protestant powers, especially in northern Europe. The Catholic Church could no longer exercise direct influence in the politics and justice-systems of lands which officially adopted Protestantism. Thus war (the [[French Wars of Religion]], the [[Thirty Years War]]), massacre (the [[St. Bartholomew's Day massacre]]) and the educational<ref> |
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{{cite book |
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|last= Vidmar |
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|first= John C. |
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|authorlink= John Vidmar |
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|title= The Catholic Church Through the Ages |
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|year= 2005 |
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|publisher= Paulist Press |
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|location= New York |
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|isbn= 9780809142347 |
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|page= 241 |
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|pages= 360 |
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}} |
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</ref> |
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and [[Sacra congregatio de propaganda fide|propaganda]] work<ref> |
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{{cite book |
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|last= Soergel |
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|first= Philip M. |
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|title= Wondrous in His Saints: Counter Reformation Propaganda in Bavaria |
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|year= 1993 |
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|publisher= University of California Press |
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|location= Berkeley |
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|isbn= 0520080475 |
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|pages= 239 |
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|nopp= |
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}} |
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</ref> |
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of the [[Counter-Reformation]] came to play relatively larger roles in these circumstances, and the judicial approach to heresy represented by the Inquisition became relatively less important overall.{{Citation needed|date=November 2009}} <!---this IS largely nonsense the way it is written. Not sure what editor was getting at except that he didn't like the Inquisition. Seems factually wide of the mark----> |
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Inquisition tribunals only functioned in Catholic territories, but secular law in both Catholic and Protestant countries could address the criminal offences of heresy and witchcraft. |
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=== Medieval Inquisition === |
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{{Main|Medieval Inquisition}} |
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Historians use the term "Medieval Inquisition" to describe the various inquisitions that started around 1184, including the ''Episcopal Inquisition'' (1184–1230s) and later the ''[[Papal Inquisition]]'' (1230s). These inquisitions responded to large popular movements throughout Europe considered [[apostasy|apostate]] or [[Christian heresy|heretical]] to [[Christianity]], in particular the [[Cathars]] in southern France and the [[Waldensians]] in both southern France and northern Italy. Other Inquisitions followed after these first inquisition movements. |
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Legal basis for some inquisitorial activity came from [[Pope Innocent IV]]'s [[papal bull]] ''[[Ad exstirpanda]]'' of 1252, which authorized and regulated the use of [[torture]] in investigating heresy. |
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=== Spanish Inquisition === |
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{{Main|Spanish Inquisition}} |
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[[Image:Pedro Berruguete - Saint Dominic Presiding over an Auto-da-fe (1475).jpg|right|thumb|225px|Representation of an [[auto de fé]], (around 1495).<ref name="Prado"> |
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[http://www.museodelprado.es/en/ingles/collection/on-line-gallery/on-line-gallery/obra/saint-dominic-presides-over-an-auto-da-fe/ Page of the painting] at [[Prado Museum]]. |
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</ref> |
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<br>Many artistic representations depict [[torture]] and [[execution by burning|burning at the stake]] as occurring during the ''[[auto de fé]].]] |
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King [[Ferdinand II of Aragon]] and Queen [[Isabella I of Castile]] set up the [[Spanish Inquisition]] in 1478. In contrast to the previous inquisitions, it operated completely under royal authority, though staffed by secular clergy and orders, and independently of the [[Holy See]]. It operated in Spain and in all Spanish colonies and territories, which included the [[Canary Islands]], the [[Spanish Netherlands]], the [[Kingdom of Naples]], and all Spanish possessions in North, Central, and South America. It targeted primarily converts from [[Judaism]] ([[Converso]]s and [[Marrano]]s) and from [[Islam]] ([[Morisco]]s or ''secret Moors'') — both groups still resided in Spain after the end of the [[Al-Andalus|Islamic control of Spain]] — who came under suspicion of either continuing to adhere to their old religion or of having fallen back into it. Somewhat later the Spanish Inquisition took an interest in [[Protestants]] of virtually any sect, notably in the [[Spanish Netherlands]]. In the [[Habsburg Spain|Spanish]] possessions of the [[Kingdom of Sicily]] and the [[Kingdom of Naples]] in southern Italy, which formed part of the Spanish Crown's hereditary possessions, it also targeted [[Greek Orthodox]] Christians. The Spanish Inquisition, tied to the authority of the Spanish Crown, also examined political cases. |
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In the Americas, King Philip II set up two tribunals (each formally titled ''Tribunal del Santo Oficio de la Inquisición''), one in [[Peruvian Inquisition|Peru]] and the other in [[Mexican Inquisition|Mexico]]. The Mexican office administered the [[Audiencia Real|Audiencia]]s of [[Guatemala]] (Guatemala, Chiapas, El Salvador, Honduras, Nicaragua, Costa Rica), [[Nueva Galicia]] (northern and western Mexico), [[Real Audiencia of Mexico|Mexico]] (central and southeastern Mexico), and the [[Philippines]]. The Peruvian Inquisition, based in Lima, administered all the Spanish territories in South America and Panama. From 1610 a new Inquisition seat established in Cartagena (Colombia) administered much of the Spanish Caribbean in addition to Panama and northern South America. |
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The Inquisition continued to function in North America until the [[Mexican War of Independence]] (1810–1821). In South America [[Simón Bolívar]] abolished the Inquisition; in Spain itself the institution survived until 1834. |
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=== Portuguese Inquisition === |
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{{Main|Portuguese Inquisition}} |
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[[Image:1685 - Inquisição Portugal.jpg|thumb|left|250px|Copper engraving intitled "Die Inquisition in Portugall", by Jean David Zunner from the work ''Description de L'Univers, Contenant les Differents Systemes de Monde, Les Cartes Generales & Particulieres de la Geographie Ancienne & Moderne'' by Alain Manesson Mallet, Frankfurt, 1685.]] |
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The '''Portuguese Inquisition''' formally started in [[Portugal]] in 1536 at the request of the [[King of Portugal]], [[João III]]. [[Manuel I of Portugal|Manuel I]] had asked [[Pope Leo X]] for the installation of the Inquisition in 1515, but only after his death (1521) did [[Pope Paul III]] acquiesce. The Portuguese Inquisition principally targeted the [[Sephardic Jews]], whom the state forced to convert to Christianity. Spain had expelled its Sephardic population in 1492 (see [[Alhambra decree]]); after 1492 many of these Spanish Jews left Spain for Portugal but eventually became targeted there as well. |
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The Portuguese Inquisition came under the authority of the King. At its head stood a [[Grand Inquisitor]], or General Inquisitor, named by the [[Pope]] but selected by the Crown, and always from within the [[royal family]]. The Grand Inquisitor would later nominate other inquisitors. In Portugal, [[Cardinal Henry]] served as the first Grand Inquisitor: he would later become King Henry of Portugal. Courts of the Inquisition operated in [[Lisbon]], [[Porto]], [[Coimbra]], and [[Évora]]. |
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The Portuguese Inquisition held its first ''auto-da-fé'' (the Portuguese equivalent of the Spanish ''[[auto de fé]]'') in Portugal in 1540. It concentrated its efforts on rooting out converts from other faiths (overwhelmingly [[Judaism]]) who did not adhere to the observances of Catholic orthodoxy; the Portuguese inquisitors mostly targeted the [[Jew]]ish "[[New Christians]]," ''[[conversos]]'', or ''[[marranos]]''. |
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The Portuguese Inquisition expanded its scope of operations from Portugal to Portugal's [[colony|colonial]] possessions, including [[Brazil]], [[Cape Verde]], and [[Goa]], where it continued as a religious court, investigating and trying cases of breaches of the tenets of orthodox [[Roman Catholic]]ism until 1821. |
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King [[John III of Portugal|João III]] (reigned 1521–1557) extended the activity of the courts to cover book-[[censorship]], [[divination]], [[witchcraft]] and [[bigamy]] Originally oriented for a religious action, the Inquisition had an influence in almost every aspect of Portuguese society: politically, culturally and socially. |
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The [[Goa Inquisition]], an inquisition largely devoted to [[antisemitism]] and to [[anti-Hinduism]], started in [[Goa]] in 1560. Aleixo Dias Falcão and Francisco Marques set it up in the palace of the [[Sabaio]] [[Adil Khan]]. |
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According to Henry Charles Lea<ref> |
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Henry Charles Lea, ''A History of the Inquisition of Spain'', vol. 3, Book 8. |
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</ref> |
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between 1540 and 1794 tribunals in Lisbon, Porto, Coimbra and Évora resulted in the burning of 1,175 persons, the burning of another 633 in effigy, and the penancing of 29,590. But documentation of fifteen out of 689<ref> |
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{{cite book |
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|first1= António José |
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|last1= Saraiva |
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|author1-link= |
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|first2= Herman Prins |
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|last2= Salomon |
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|author2-link= |
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|firstn= I. S. D. |
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|lastn= Sassoon |
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|authorn-link= Isaac S.D. Sassoon |
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|title= The Marrano Factory: the Portuguese Inquistion and its New Christians 1536-1765 |
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|url= http://books.google.com/books?hl=en&lr=&id=eG8xUFivagkC&oi |
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|accessdate= 2010-04-13 |
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|origyear= First published in Portuguese in 1969 |
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|year= 2001 |
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|publisher= Brill |
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|location= |
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|isbn= 9789004120808 |
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|page= 102 |
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|pages= 402 |
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|quote= |
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}} |
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</ref> |
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[[Auto de fé|Autos-da-fé]] has disappeared, so these numbers may slightly understate the activity. |
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The "General Extraordinary and Constituent [[Court]]s of the Portuguese Nation" abolished the Portuguese inquisition in 1821. |
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=== Roman Inquisition === |
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{{Main|Roman Inquisition}} |
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In 1542 [[Pope Paul III]] established the '''Congregation of the Holy Office of the Inquisition''' as a permanent congregation staffed with [[Cardinal (Catholicism)|cardinals]] and other officials. It had the tasks of maintaining and defending the integrity of the faith and of examining and proscribing errors and false doctrines;<ref> |
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[http://galileo.rice.edu/chr/inquisition.html The Galileo Project | Christianity | The Inquisition] |
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</ref> |
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it thus became the supervisory body of local Inquisitions. Arguably the most famous case tried by the Roman Inquisition involved [[Galileo Galilei]] in 1633. |
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Following the [[Papal_States#French_Revolution_and_Napoleonic_era|French invasion]] of 1798, the new authorities sent 3,000 chests containing over 100,000 Inquisition documents to France from Rome.{{Citation needed|date=February 2009}} After the restoration of the Pope as the ruler of the [[Papal States]] after 1814, Roman Inquisition activity continued until the mid-19th century, notably in the well-publicised [[Mortara Affair]] (1858–1870). |
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In 1908 the name of the Congregation became "The Sacred Congregation of the Holy Office", which in 1965 further changed to "[[Congregation for the Doctrine of the Faith]]", as retained to {{As of|2008|alt= the present day}}. The Pope appoints a cardinal to preside over the Congregation, which usually includes ten other cardinals, as well as a [[prelate]] and two assistants, all chosen from the [[Dominican Order]]. The "Holy Office" also has an international group of consultants, experienced scholars in theology and canon law, who advise it on specific questions.{{Citation needed|date=May 2007}} |
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==References== |
==References== |
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Revision as of 20:20, 14 September 2010
Atheism Conquered (Latin: Atheismus Triumphatus) is a philosophical work by the Italian Dominican philosopher Tommaso Campanella. Robert Greene categorizes it as "a book attacking free-thinkers, Machiavellians, Calvinists, and heretics of all stripes."[1]
The work was written in Italian in 1605-1607, shortly after Campanella's release from imprisonment for heresy and sedition. The former monk was tortured by the Spanish Inquisition with the infamous la veglia which involved suspending a victim by the arms over a giant shaft studded with spikes.
References
- ^ Robert Greene, The 48 Laws of Power.