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kgjfgjggjkfjglkjgfgjfdgwq3q32 gunpowder came to Europe is that it made its way along the Silk Road through the Middle East; another is that it was brought to Europe during the Mongol invasion in the first half of the 13th century.^[1]^[2]

First mention of firearms in Russia is found in "Sofiiskii vremennik" chronicle, where it is stated that during the 1382 defense of Moscow from Tokhtamysh's Golden Horde, Muscovites used "tiufiaks" firearms (Russian: "тюфяки"; this word derives from Turkic "tüfeng", meaning "gun"), which were of Eastern origin.^[3]^[4]

Around the late 1400s in Europe, smaller and portable hand-held cannons were developed, creating in effect the first smooth-bore personal firearm. As the centuries progressed, these hand-held cannons evolved into the flintlock rifle, then the breech loader and finally the automatic.

Breech loaders became practical in the 1860s when metallurgy developed sufficiently that brass could be worked into fixed ammunition. Previously each round was custom made as needed: the shooter poured loose powder down the barrel, used leather or cloth for wadding if time allowed, selected a suitable projectile (lead ball, rocks, arrow, or nail), then seated the projectile on top of the powder charge by means of a ramrod. Performance was erratic. Fixed ammunition combined a primer, the pre-measured charge, and the projectile in a water resistant brass "cartridge case". Most importantly, the soft brass expanded under pressure of the gas to seal the rear end of the barrel; which prevented the shooter from being maimed by escaping high pressure gases when he pulled the trigger.

A repeating firearm or "repeater" is a firearm that holds more than one cartridge and can be fired more than once between loadings. Some repeating firearms require manipulation of a bolt, lever, or slide to eject the fired cartridge case, draw a fresh cartridge from the "magazine," and insert it into the firing chamber, and "cock" (draw to the rear and place under spring tension) the hammer or striker, so that pulling the trigger will fire the weapon. Others use either the firearm's recoil, or a small portion of the propellant gas drawn from the barrel, to operate the firearm's mechanism and ready it for the next shot. Such firearms are sometimes called "self-loading," but are more commonly known as "semi-automatic," if they fire one shot for every pull of the trigger, or "automatic" or "full auto" if they continue to fire until the trigger is released or the magazine is empty. A revolver is a unique type of firearm in which a rotating cylinder holds a number of cartridges; the cylinder "revolves" to align each "chamber" or "charge hole" with the rear of the barrel, hold the cartridge and contain the pressure (up to 65,000 pounds per square inch or 450 MPa) produced when the cartridge is fired. Thus the cylinder serves as both magazine and firing chambers. There are also "single shot" and multiple-barrel firearms, which hold only one cartridge per barrel and must be reloaded manually between shots.

Early firearms had to be cocked and caught by the "sear," which holds the hammer back, before each shot. Pulling the trigger allows the hammer or striker to fly forward, striking the "firing pin," which then strikes the "primer," igniting an impact-sensitive chemical compound (historically, first fulminate of mercury, then potassium chlorate, now lead styphnate) which shoots a flame through the "flash hole" into the cartridge's propellant chamber, igniting the propellant.

The earliest repeating firearms were revolvers, (revolving rifles were sometimes called "turret guns") and were "single action" in that they could only be fired one way: by manually cocking the mechanism (drawing the hammer to the rear with the thumb) before each shot. This design dates from 1836, with the introduction of the Colt Patterson, or even earlier. Though they are slower to reload and fire than some other types of firearms, single-action revolvers are of a simple, strong design, and are still made, though they are nowadays used more often for hunting than for self-defense. The double-action revolver is a design almost as old as the single action. A double-action revolver can be fired in either of two ways. One can cock the hammer (the action of which moves levers to rotate the cylinder and align a fresh cartridge with the rear of the barrel), then pull the trigger for each shot ("single-action mode") or one may simply pull the trigger, through a longer, heavier stroke. This causes levers and springs to both rotate the cylinder and draw the hammer to the rear, then release it, firing the cartridge. Firing a double-action revolver in single-action mode tends to be more accurate, because the trigger pull is much shorter and lighter; usually four or five pounds-force (18−22 newtons) of pull is sufficient, instead of the twelve to twenty pounds (50−90 N) required for double-action mode, so the firearm's aim is less likely to be disturbed by the force of pulling the trigger.

Self-loaders are firearms that use some of the discharge energy to reload the firearm. These are also called semi-automatics. These are typically fed from a tube or detachable magazine, commonly but incorrectly referred to as a “clip” (which correctly denotes a magazine reloading device used in certain rifles, or a retainer for flangeless bullets used in certain revolvers).

Automatics (also called full autos, machine guns, or machine pistols) were not practical until the development of smokeless powder in the late 1800s. Black powder caused too much fouling of the mechanism to allow automatics or self-loaders to be reliable.

Notes

References

Buchanan, Brenda J. (2006), Gunpowder, Explosives and the State: A Technological History, Aldershot: Ashgate, ISBN 0754652599
Chase, Kenneth (2003), Firearms: A Global History to 1700, Cambridge University Press, ISBN 0521822742
Crosby, Alfred W. (2002), Throwing Fire: Projectile Technology Through History, Cambridge University Press, ISBN 0521791588
Kelly, Jack (2004), Gunpowder: Alchemy, Bombards, & Pyrotechnics: The History of the Explosive that Changed the World, Basic Books, ISBN 0465037186
Needham, Joseph (1986), Science & Civilisation in China, vol. V:7: The Gunpowder Epic, Cambridge University Press, ISBN 0521303583
Norris, John (2003), Early Gunpowder Artillery: 1300-1600, Marlborough: The Crowood Press.

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+kgjfgjggjkfjglkjgfgjfdgwq3q32 gunpowder came to Europe is that it made its way along the Silk Road through the Middle East; another is that it was brought to Europe during the Mongol invasion in the first half of the 13th century.<ref>{{Harvcolnb|Norris|2003|p=11}}</ref><ref name=chase58>{{Harvcolnb|Chase|2003|p=58}}</ref>
-{{main|Firearm}}
-[[Gunpowder]] was discovered in China in the 9th century.<ref>{{Harvnb|Buchanan|2006|p=2}} "With its ninth century AD origins in China, the knowledge of gunpowder emerged from the search by alchemists for the secrets of life, to filter through the channels of Middle Eastern culture, and take root in Europe with consequences that form the context of the studies in this volume."</ref><ref>{{Harvnb|Needham|1986|p=7}} "Without doubt it was in the previous century, around +850, that the early alchemical experiments on the constituents of gunpowder, with its self-contained oxygen, reached their climax in the appearance of the mixture itself."</ref> Its discovery in the 800s and the subsequent invention of firearms in the 1100s both coincided with long periods of disunity during which there was some immediate use for infantry and siege weapons.<ref name=chase>{{Harvnb|Chase|2003|pp=31–32}}</ref>
-[[Image:Chinese Fire Lance with Pellets.JPG|thumb|right|150px|The ''phalanx-charging fire-gourd'', one of many [[fire lance]] types discharging lead pellets in the [[gunpowder]] blast, an illustration from the ''[[Huolongjing]]'', 14th century.]]
-[[Image:Yuan chinese gun.jpg|thumb|[[Hand cannon]] from the Chinese [[Yuan Dynasty]] (1271-1368).]]
-==East Asia==
-The direct ancestor of the firearm is the [[fire-lance]], a gunpowder-filled tube attached to the end of a spear and used as a flamethrower; shrapnel was sometimes placed in the barrel so that it would fly out together with the flames.<ref name=chase>{{Harvnb|Chase|2003|pp=31–32}}</ref><ref name=crosby>{{Harvnb|Crosby|2002|p=99}}</ref> The earliest depiction of a gunpowder weapon is the illustration of a fire-lance on a mid-10th century silk banner from Dunhuang.<ref>{{Harvnb|Needham|1986|pp=8–9}}</ref> The ''Tê-An Shou Chhêng Lu'', an account of the siege of De'an in 1132, records that [[Song Dynasty|Song]] forces used fire-lances against the [[Jurchens]].<ref>{{Harvcolnb|Needham|1986|p=222}}</ref>
-In due course, the proportion of saltpeter in the propellant was increased to increase its explosive power.<ref name=crosby/> To better withstand that explosive power, the paper and bamboo of which fire-lance barrels were originally made came to be replaced by metal.<ref name=chase/> And to take full advantage of that power, the shrapnel came to be replaced by projectiles whose size and shape filled the barrel more closely.<ref name=crosby/> With this, we have the three basic features of the gun: a barrel made of metal, high-[[nitrate]] gunpowder, and a projectile which totally occludes the muzzle so that the powder charge exerts its full potential in propellant effect.<ref>{{Harvnb|Needham|1986|p=10}}</ref>
-The earliest depiction of a gun is a sculpture from a cave in Sichuan dating to the 1100s of a figure carrying a vase-shaped [[bombard]] with flames and a cannonball coming out of it.<ref>{{Harvcolnb|Lu|Needham|Phan|1988}}</ref><ref>{{Harvcolnb|Chase|2003|pp=31-32}}</ref> The oldest surviving gun, made of bronze, has been dated to 1288 because it was discovered at a site in modern-day [[Acheng District]] where the ''Yuan Shi'' records that battles were fought at that time; Li Ting, a military commander of [[Jurchen]] descent, led foot-soldiers armed with guns—including a Korean brigade—in battle to suppress the rebellion of the Christian Mongol prince Nayan.<ref name="needham volume 5 part 7 293 294">{{Harvcolnb|Needham|1986|pp=293–294}}</ref>
-==Firearms in the Middle East==
-{{see|Inventions in the Islamic world|Alchemy (Islam)}}
-[[Alchemy (Islam)|Arabic chemists]] and [[Inventions in the Muslim world|engineers]] acquired knowledge of saltpetre—which they called "Chinese snow" (''thalj al-Sīn'')—and, soon afterward, of gunpowder; they also learned of fireworks ("Chinese flowers") and rockets ("Chinese arrows").<ref name="needham volume 5 part 7 108">{{Harvcolnb|Needham|1986|p=108}}</ref><ref name=urbanski>{{Harvcolnb|Urbanski|1967|loc=Chapter III: ''Blackpowder''}}</ref> The Arabs were purifying saltpetre by the [[11th century]], and the earliest complete purification process was described by Hasan al-Rammah in 1270, who used [[potassium carbonate]] to remove [[Calcium carbonate|calcium]] and [[Magnesium carbonate|magnesium]] [[salt]]s from the saltpetre.<ref>{{cite web | url = http://www.history-science-technology.com/Articles/articles%202.htm | title =   Potassium Nitrate in Arabic and Latin Sources | accessdate = 2007-07-24 | last = al-Hassan | first = Ahmad Y. | authorlink = Ahmad Y Hassan | work = History of Science and Technology in Islam | language = English}}</ref>
-[[Image:Dardanelles Gun Turkish Bronze 15c.png|thumb|230px|right|The [[Great Turkish Bombard]], a very heavy bronze [[muzzle-loading]] [[cannon]] of type used by [[Ottoman Empire|Turks]] in the [[Fall of Constantinople|siege of Constantinople]], [[1453]] AD, showing ornate decoration.]]
-Hasan al-Rammah, in ''The Book of Military Horsemanship and Ingenious War Devices'', also described the earliest known recipes for an [[explosive]] gunpowder effect, some of which were almost identical to the ideal composition for [[explosive]] gunpowder used in modern times (75% saltpetre (KNO3), 10% [[sulfur]], 15% [[carbon]]), such as the ''tayyar'' "rocket" (75 parts saltpetre, 8 sulfur, and 15 carbon, by weight) and the ''tayyar buruq'' "lightning rocket" (74 parts saltpetre, 10 sulfur, 15 carbon). He states in his book that many of these recipes were known to his father and grandfather, hence dating back to at least the late 12th century. The earliest known military applications of these explosive gunpowder compositions were the explosive [[hand cannon]]s first used by the [[Egypt]]ians to repel the [[Mongols]] at the [[Battle of Ain Jalut]] in 1260. There were four different gunpowder compositions used for the cannons at the battle, with the most explosive cannon having a gunpowder composition (74% saltpetre, 11% sulfur, 15% carbon) again almost identical to the ideal composition for explosive gunpowder.<ref>[[Ahmad Y Hassan]], [http://www.history-science-technology.com/Articles/articles%203.htm Gunpowder Composition for Rockets and Cannon in Arabic Military Treatises In Thirteenth and Fourteenth Centuries], ''History of Science and Technology in Islam''.</ref><ref>[[Ahmad Y Hassan]], [http://www.history-science-technology.com/Articles/articles%2072.htm Technology Transfer in the Chemical Industries], ''History of Science and Technology in Islam''.</ref>
-The invention of [[torpedo]]es occurred in the [[Muslim world]], and were driven by a rocket system. The works of Hasan al-Rammah in [[Syria]] in 1275 shows illustrations of a torpedo running on water with a rocket system filled with explosive materials and having three firing points.<ref name=Terzioglu>[[Tosun Terzioğlu|Arslan Terzioglu]] (2007), "The First Attempts of Flight, Automatic Machines, Submarines and Rocket Technology in Turkish History", in ''The Turks'' (ed. H. C. Guzel), pp. 804-810.</ref> The first [[supergun]] was the [[Great Turkish Bombard]], used by the troops of [[Mehmed II]] to [[Fall of Constantinople|capture]] [[Constantinople]] in [[1453]]. It had a 762 mm bore, and fired 680 kg (1500 lb) stones.
-==Firearms in the West==
-One theory of how gunpowder came to Europe is that it made its way along the Silk Road through the Middle East; another is that it was brought to Europe during the Mongol invasion in the first half of the 13th century.<ref>{{Harvcolnb|Norris|2003|p=11}}</ref><ref name=chase58>{{Harvcolnb|Chase|2003|p=58}}</ref>
 First mention of firearms in Russia is found in "Sofiiskii vremennik" [[chronicle]], where it is stated that during the 1382 defense of [[Moscow]] from Tokhtamysh's [[Golden Horde]], Muscovites used "tiufiaks" firearms ({{lang-ru|"тюфяки"}}; this word derives from [[Turkic languages|Turkic]] "tüfeng", meaning "gun"), which were of [[Eastern world|Eastern]] origin.<ref>[http://www.gunlab.com.ru/history.html Firearms in Russia]</ref><ref>{{ru icon}} [http://bibliotekar.ru/divo/31-85-2.htm First Gun Volleys]</ref>

Revision as of 15:38, 25 September 2008

Notes

References

See also