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Jordanian annexation of the West Bank

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West Bank
الضفة الغربية
Aḍ-Ḍiffah l-Ġarbiyyah
1948–1967
Flag of West Bank
Flag
Coat of arms of West Bank
Coat of arms
Contemporary map, 1955
Contemporary map, 1955
StatusArea annexed by the Hashemite Kingdom of Jordan
CapitalAmman
Common languagesArabic
Religion
Sunni Islam (majority)
Christianity (minority)
History 
14 May 1948
• Annexation
24 April 1950
5–10 June 1967
31 July 1988
CurrencyJordanian dinar
Preceded by		 Succeeded by
Mandatory Palestine
Israeli occupation of the West Bank
Today part ofIsraeli occupation of the West Bank, claimed by Palestine, widely recognized as Palestinian territory.[a]

The Jordanian administration of the West Bank officially began on 24 April 1950, and ended with the decision to sever ties on 31 July 1988. The period started during the 1948 Arab-Israeli War, when Jordan occupied and subsequently annexed the portion of Mandatory Palestine that became known as the West Bank, including East Jerusalem. The territory remained under Jordanian control until it was occupied by Israel during the 1967 Six Day War and eventually Jordan renounced its claim to the territory in 1988.[1][2][3][4][b]

During the December 1948 Jericho Conference, hundreds of Palestinian notables in the West Bank gathered, accepted Jordanian rule and recognized Abdullah as ruler. The West Bank was formally annexed on 24 April 1950, but the annexation was widely considered as illegal and void by most of the international community, including the Arab League, which ultimately decided to treat Jordan as a temporary trustee pending future settlement.[6][7][8] Recognition of Jordan's declaration of annexation was granted only by the United Kingdom, Iraq, and possibly Pakistan.[6][9][10] The United States while avoiding public approval, also recognized this extension of Jordanian sovereignty.[11][12][13]

When Jordan transferred its full citizenship rights to the residents of the West Bank, the annexation more than tripled the population of Jordan, going from 400,000 to 1,300,000.[4][14] The naturalized Palestinians were given half of the seats of the Jordanian parliament.[15][16][17]

Background

Partition and 1947/48 diplomacy

Prior to hostilities in 1948, Palestine (modern-day West Bank, Gaza Strip and Israel) had been administered by the British Empire pursuant to the Mandate for Palestine, having captured it from the Ottomans in 1917. The British, as custodians of the land, implemented the land tenure laws in Palestine, which it had inherited from the Ottomans (as defined in the Ottoman Land Code of 1858).[18] Toward the expiration of the British Mandate, Arabs aspired to independence and self-determination, as did the Jews of the country.[19]

Armistice Demarcation Lines, 1949–1967
  •   Israel, 15 May 1948
  •   Allotted for Arab state, occupied by Egypt Feb 1949/Jordan Apr 1949
  •   Allotted for Arab state, occupied by Israel Feb/Apr 1949

On 29 November 1947 the UN General Assembly passed Resolution 181 which envisaged the division of Palestine into three parts: an Arab State, a Jewish State and the City of Jerusalem. The proposed Arab State would include the central and part of western Galilee, with the town of Acre, the hill country of Samaria and Judea, an enclave at Jaffa, and the southern coast stretching from north of Isdud (now Ashdod) and encompassing what is now the Gaza Strip, with a section of desert along the Egyptian border. The proposed Jewish State would include the fertile Eastern Galilee, the Coastal Plain, stretching from Haifa to Rehovot and most of the Negev desert. The Jerusalem Corpus separatum was to include Bethlehem and the surrounding areas. The proposed Jewish State covered 56.47% of Mandatory Palestine (excluding Jerusalem) with a population of 498,000 Jews and 325,000 Arabs while the proposed Arab State covered 43.53% of Mandatory Palestine (excluding Jerusalem), with 807,000 Arab inhabitants and 10,000 Jewish inhabitants and in Jerusalem, an international trusteeship regime where the population was 100,000 Jews and 105,000 Arabs.[20]

In March 1948, the British Cabinet had agreed that the civil and military authorities in Palestine should make no effort to oppose the setting up of a Jewish State or a move into Palestine from Transjordan.[21] The United States, together with the United Kingdom, favoured the annexation by Transjordan. The UK preferred to permit King Abdullah to annex the territory at the earliest date, while the United States preferred to wait until after the conclusion of negotiations brokered by the Palestine Conciliation Commission.[22]

Entry of Transjordan forces into Mandate Palestine

Following the End of the British Mandate for Palestine and Israel's declaration of independence on 14 May 1948, the Arab Legion, under the leadership of Sir John Bagot Glubb, known as Glubb Pasha, was ordered to enter Mandatory Palestine and secure the UN-designated Arab area.[23]

Armistice

By the end of the war, Jordanian forces had control over the West Bank, including East Jerusalem. On 3 April 1949, Israel and Jordan signed an armistice agreement. The main points included:

The remainder of the area designated as part of an Arab state under the UN Partition Plan was partly occupied by Egypt (Gaza Strip), partly occupied and annexed by Israel (West Negev, West Galilee, Jaffa). The intended international enclave of Jerusalem was divided between Israel and Jordan.

Jordanian occupation and annexation

The road to annexation

After the invasion, Jordan began making moves to perpetuate the Jordanian occupation over the Arab part of Palestine. King Abdullah appointed governors on his behalf in the Arab cities of Ramallah, Hebron, Nablus, Bethlehem, Ramla and the Arab controlled part of Jerusalem, that were captured by Legion in the invasion. These governors were mostly Palestinians (including Aref al-Aref, Ibrahim Hashem and Ahmed Hilmi Pasha), and the Jordanians described them as "military" governors, so that it would not anger the other Arab states, which opposed Jordan's plans to incorporate the Arab part of Palestine into the kingdom. The king made other smaller moves towards the annexation of the West Bank: He ordered Palestinian policemen to wear the uniforms of the Jordanian police and its symbols; he instituted the use of Jordanian postage stamps instead of the British ones; Palestinian municipalities were not allowed to collect taxes and issue licenses; and the radio of Ramallah called the locals to disobey the instructions of pro-Husseini officials and obey those of the Jordanian-backed governors.[24]

The December 1948 Jericho Conference, a meeting of prominent Palestinian leaders convened by King Abdullah I voted in favor of annexation into what was then Transjordan.[25] Transjordan became the Hashemite Kingdom of Jordan on 26 April 1949.[26] Military occupation concluded on 2 November 1949 via promulgation of the Law Amending Public Administration Law in Palestine whereby the laws of Palestine were declared to remain applicable.[27] In the Jordanian parliament, the West and East Banks received 30 seats each, having roughly equal populations. The first elections were held on 11 April 1950. Although the West Bank had not yet been annexed, its residents were permitted to vote.[citation needed]

Annexation

A 1949 amendment to the British Mandate's 1928 Nationality Law in 1949 effectively imposed Jordanian citizenship on the region's 420,000 local Palestinians, 280,000 Palestinian refugees in the West Bank and 70,000 Palestinian refugees in the East Bank, ahead of formal annexation on 24 April 1950. Then in 1954, Jordan's Nationality Law clarified the conditions under which Palestinian Arabs could obtain Jordanian citizenship.[28]

Unlike any other Arab country to which they fled after the 1948 Arab–Israeli War, Palestinian refugees in the West Bank (and on the East Bank) were given Jordanian citizenship on the same basis as existing residents.[29] Elihu Lauterpacht described it as a move that "entirely lacked legal justification."[30] The annexation formed part of Jordan's "Greater Syria Plan" expansionist policy,[31] and in response, Saudi Arabia, Lebanon and Syria joined Egypt in demanding Jordan's expulsion from the Arab League.[32][33] A motion to expel Jordan from the League was prevented by the dissenting votes of Yemen and Iraq.[34] On 12 June 1950, the Arab League declared the annexation was a temporary, practical measure and that Jordan was holding the territory as a "trustee" pending a future settlement.[35][36][37][38][39] On 27 July 1953, King Hussein of Jordan announced that East Jerusalem was "the alternative capital of the Hashemite Kingdom" and would form an "integral and inseparable part" of Jordan.[40] In an address to parliament in Jerusalem in 1960, Hussein called the city the "second capital of the Hashemite Kingdom of Jordan".[41]

Only the United Kingdom formally recognized the annexation of the West Bank, de facto in the case of East Jerusalem.[42] In 1950, the British extended formal recognition to the union between the Hashemite Kingdom and that part of Palestine under Jordanian control - with the exception of Jerusalem. The British government stated that it regarded the provisions of the Anglo-Jordan Treaty of Alliance of 1948 as applicable to all the territory included in the union.[42] The United States Department of State also recognized this extension of Jordanian sovereignty.[11][12] Pakistan is claimed to have recognized Jordan's annexation too, but this is disputed.[43][44][45] Despite Arab League opposition, the inhabitants of the West Bank became citizens of Jordan.

Tensions continued between Jordan and Israel through the early 1950s, with Palestinian guerrillas and Israeli commandos crossing the Green Line. Abdullah I of Jordan, who had become Emir of Transjordan in 1921 and King in 1923, was assassinated in July 1951 during a visit to the Jami Al-Aqsa on the Temple Mount in East Jerusalem by a Palestinian gunman following rumours that he was discussing a peace treaty with Israel. The trial found that this assassination had been planned by Colonel Abdullah el-Tell, ex-military governor of Jerusalem, and Musa Abdullah Husseini. He was succeeded by his son Talal and then his grandson Hussein.

Access to holy sites

Main article: Islamization of Jerusalem

Clauses in the 3 April 1949 Armistice Agreements specified that Israelis would have access to the religious sites in East Jerusalem. However, Jordan refused to implement this clause, arguing that Israel's refusal to permit the return of Palestinians to their homes in West Jerusalem voided that clause in the agreement.[46] Tourists entering East Jerusalem had to present baptismal certificates or other proof they were not Jewish.[47][48][49]

The special committee that was to make arrangements for visits to holy places was never formed and Israelis, irrespective of religion, were barred from entering the Old City and other holy sites.[50] Significant parts of the Jewish Quarter, much of it severely damaged in the war, together with synagogues such as the Hurva Synagogue, which had also been used as a military base in the conflict, were destroyed.[51][52] It was said that some gravestones from the Jewish cemetery on the Mount of Olives had been used for construction, paving roads and to build latrines for a nearby Jordanian army barracks.[53] The Jordanians immediately expelled all the Jewish residents of East Jerusalem.[54] Mark Tessler cites John Oesterreicher as writing that during Jordanian rule, "34 out of the Old City's 35 synagogues were dynamited. Some were turned into stables, others into chicken coops."[55]

Aftermath

Six-Day War and end of Jordanian control

Main article: Six-Day War

By the end of the Six-Day War, the formerly Jordanian-controlled West Bank with its one million Palestinian population had come under Israeli military occupation. About 300,000 Palestinian refugees were expelled or fled to Jordan. After 1967, all religious groups were granted administration over their own holy sites, while administration of the Temple Mount – sacred to Jews, Christians, and Muslims – remained in the hands of the Jerusalem Islamic Waqf.

Jordanian disengagement

See also: Oslo Accords and Israel–Jordan peace treaty

Following the Six-Day War in 1967, Israel occupied the West Bank (including East Jerusalem). Although the sides were technically at war, a policy known as "open bridges" meant that Jordan continued to pay salaries and pensions to civil servants and to provide services to endowments and educational affairs and in general to play an active role in West Bank affairs.[56][57]

In 1972, King Hussein conceived a plan to establish a united Arab federation which would include the West Bank and Jordan. This proposal never came to fruition.

In 1974, the Arab League decided to recognize the Palestine Liberation Organization (PLO) as the sole legitimate representative of the Palestinian people. The decision forced King Hussein to relinquish his claim to speak for the Palestinian people during peace negotiations and to recognize an independent Palestinian state that is independent of Jordan.[citation needed]

On 28 July 1988, King Hussein announced the cessation of a $1.3 billion development program for the West Bank. He explained that the aim of this move was to allow the PLO to take more responsibility for these territories.[58] Two days later the king dissolved Jordan's lower house of parliament, half of whose members represented constituencies in the Israeli-occupied West Bank.[59]

On 31 July 1988, King Hussein announced the severance of all legal and administrative ties with the West Bank, except for the Jordanian sponsorship of the Muslim and Christian holy sites in Jerusalem, and recognised the PLO as "the sole legitimate representative of the Palestinian people.". In his speech to the nation held on that day he announced his decision and explained that this decision was made with the aim of helping the Palestinian people establishing their own independent state.[60][61]

The 1993 Oslo Accords between the PLO and Israel "opened the road for Jordan to proceed on its own negotiating track with Israel."[62] The Washington Declaration[63] was initialled one day after the Oslo Accords were signed. "On July 25, 1994, King Hussein met with Israeli Prime Minister Rabin in the Rose Garden of the White House, where they signed the Washington Declaration, formally ending the 46-year state of war between Jordan and Israel."[62] Finally, on 26 October 1994, Jordan signed the Israel–Jordan peace treaty, which normalized relations between the two countries and resolved territorial disputes between them.

See also

Notes

  1. ^ Since capturing the West Bank in the 1967 Six-Day War, Israel has held the entirety of the territory under belligerent occupation. East Jerusalem was effectively annexed by Israel, however Israeli sovereignty over East Jerusalem is widely unrecognized.
  2. ^ The term "West Bank" was first used by the British Foreign Office and by the Jordanians towards the second half of 1949.[5]

Citations

  1. ^ Eyal Benvenisti (2004). The International Law of Occupation. Princeton University Press. pp. 108–. ISBN 978-0-691-12130-7.
  2. ^ Raphael Israeli, Jerusalem divided: the armistice regime, 1947–1967, Volume 23 of Cass series – Israeli history, politics, and society, Psychology Press, 2002, p. 23.
  3. ^ "Under Jordanian occupation since the 1948 Palestine war," Chicago Tribune, 3 June 1954
  4. ^ a b Cavendish, Richard (4 April 2000). "Jordan Formally Annexes the West Bank". History Today. Retrieved 23 January 2017.
  5. ^ Ilan Pappe (26 July 1988). Britain and the Arab-Israeli Conflict, 1948-51. Palgrave Macmillan UK. pp. 77–. ISBN 978-1-349-19326-4.
  6. ^ a b Benveniśtî, Eyāl (2004). The international law of occupation. Princeton University Press. p. 108. ISBN 978-0-691-12130-7. This purported annexation was, however, widely regarded as illegal and void, by the Arab League and others, and was recognized only by Britain, Iraq, and Pakistan.
  7. ^ "Jordan's Annexation in Palestine is Called Illegal by Arab League" (PDF). The New York Times. 16 May 1950.
  8. ^ "Arab League Delay on Jordan Ban Seen". The New York Times. 14 June 1950.
  9. ^ George Washington University. Law School (2005). The George Washington international law review. George Washington University. p. 390. Retrieved 21 December 2010. Jordan's illegal occupation and Annexation of the West Bank
  10. ^ It is often stated that Pakistan recognized it as well, but that is disputed; see S. R. Silverburg, Pakistan and the West Bank: A research note, Middle Eastern Studies, 19:2 (1983) 261–263.
  11. ^ a b "Foreign Relations of the United States, 1950, The Near East, South Asia, and Africa, Volume V - Office of the Historian". history.state.gov. The policy of the Department, as stated in a paper on this subject prepared for the Foreign Ministers meetings in London in May was in favor of the incorporation of Central Palestine into Jordan but desired that it be done gradually and not by sudden proclamation. Once the annexation took place, the Department approved of the action 'in the sense that it represents a logical development of the situation which took place as a result of a free expression of the will of the people.… The United States continues to wish to avoid a public expression of approval of the union.'
  12. ^ a b Joseph Massad said that the members of the Arab League granted de facto recognition and that the United States had formally recognized the annexation, except for Jerusalem. See Massad, Joseph A. (2001). Colonial Effects: The Making of National Identity in Jordan. New York: Columbia University Press. p. 229. ISBN 978-0-231-12323-5.
  13. ^ Victor Kattan (13 December 2022). "Chapter 17: Jordan and Palestine: union (1950) and secession (1988)". In Jure Vidmar, Sarah McGibbon, and Lea Raible (ed.). Research Handbook on Secession. Edward Elgar. ISBN 9781788971744. The US State Department also favoured the union. Although it used the words 'annexation','incorporation' and 'union' interchangeably in its internal assessment of Jordanian politics, it also acknowledged that the Act of Union represented "a logical development of the situation which took place as a result of a free expression of the will of the people"{{cite book}}: CS1 maint: multiple names: editors list (link)
  14. ^ Mishal, Shaul. "Chapter 4. Conflictual Pressures and Cooperative Interests: Observations on West Bank-Amman Political Relations, 1949–1967". Palestinian Society and Politics, Princeton: Princeton University Press, 1980, pp. 169-184. https://doi.org/10.1515/9781400854479.169
  15. ^ Nils August Butenschon; Uri Davis; Manuel Sarkis Hassassian (2000). Citizenship and the State in the Middle East: Approaches and Applications. Syracuse University Press. ISBN 978-0-8156-2829-3. Retrieved 18 October 2015.
  16. ^ "Palestinians in Jordan". 16 October 2023.
  17. ^ "Seventy+ Years of Suffocation | Chapter 2: Jordan".
  18. ^ The Survey of Palestine under the British Mandate: 1920–1948, British Mandate government printing office, Jerusalem 1946, vol. 1, p. 225, of chapter 8, section 1, paragraph 1 (Reprinted in 1991 by the Institute for Palestine Studies), which reads: "The land law in Palestine embraces the system of tenures inherited from the Ottoman regime, enriched by some amendments, mostly of a declaratory character, enacted since the British Occupation on the authority of the Palestine Orders-in-Council."
  19. ^ A Survey of Palestine (Prepared in December 1945 and January 1946 for the information of the Anglo-American Committee of Inquiry), vol. 1, chapter 2, British Mandate Government of Palestine: Jerusalem 1946, p. 24
  20. ^ "UN Partition Plan". BBC. 29 November 2001. Retrieved 21 April 2020.
  21. ^ CAB/128/12 formerly C.M.(48) 24 conclusions 22 March 1948
  22. ^ Foreign relations of the United States, 1950. The Near East, South Asia, and Africa, p. 1096
  23. ^ Sir John Bagot Glubb, A Soldier with the Arabs, London 1957, p. 200
  24. ^ Yoav Gelber, Independence Versus Nakba; Kinneret–Zmora-Bitan–Dvir Publishing, 2004, ISBN 978-965-517-190-7, pp.262–263
  25. ^ "Foreign Relations of the United States, 1950, The Near East, South Asia, and Africa, Volume V - Office of the Historian". history.state.gov.
  26. ^ Khalil, Muhammad (1962). The Arab States and the Arab League: a Documentary Record. Beirut: Khayats. pp. 53–54.
  27. ^ Quigley, John B. (2010). The statehood of Palestine: international law in the Middle East conflict. Cambridge University Press. p. 118. ISBN 978-0-521-15165-8. On November 2, 1949, military rule was declared to be at an end by promulgation of the Law Amending Public Administration Law in Palestine. Under this law, King Abdullah assumed for Jordan the powers previously exercised by Britain as mandatory, and the laws of Palestine were declared to remain applicable. Thus, in the West Bank Jordan viewed itself as playing a role similar to that being assumed by Egypt in Gaza.
  28. ^ Albanese, Francesca P.; Takkenberg, Lex (2020). "3.2.3 Legal status and treatment". Palestinian Refugees in International Law. OUP Oxford. ISBN 978-0-19-108678-6.
  29. ^ Al Abed, Oroub. "Palestinian refugees in Jordan" (PDF). Forced Migration Online. Archived from the original (PDF) on 28 August 2017. Retrieved 6 July 2015. Palestinians were granted Jordanian Citizenship. Article 3 of the 1954 law states that a Jordanian national is: 'Any person with previous Palestinian nationality except the Jews before the date of May 15, 1948 residing in the Kingdom during the period from December 20, 1949 and February 16, 1954.' Thus Palestinians in the East Bank and the West Bank of the Hashemite Kingdom of Jordan were granted Jordanian nationality.
  30. ^ Gerson, Allan (1 January 1978). Israel, the West Bank and International Law. Psychology Press. ISBN 978-0-7146-3091-5.
  31. ^ Naseer Hasan Aruri (1972). Jordan: a study in political development (1921-1965). Springer. p. 90. ISBN 978-90-247-1217-5. Retrieved 22 December 2010. For Abdullah, the annexation of Palestine was the first step in the implementation of his Greater Syria Plan. His expansionist policy placed him at odds with Egypt and Saudi Arabic. Syria and Lebanon, which would be included in the Plan were uneasy. The annexation of Palestine was, therefore, condemned by the Arab League's Political Committee on May 15, 1950.
  32. ^ American Jewish Committee; Jewish Publication Society of America (1951). American Jewish year book. American Jewish Committee. pp. 405–06. Retrieved 21 December 2010. On April 13, 1950, the council of the League resolved that Jordan's annexation of Arab Palestine was illegal, and at a meeting of the League's political committee on May 15, 1950, Saudi Arabia, Lebanon and Syria joined Egypt in demanding Jordan's expulsion from the Arab League.
  33. ^ Council for Middle Eastern Affairs (1950). Middle Eastern affairs. Council for Middle Eastern Affairs. p. 206. Retrieved 21 December 2010. May 12: Jordan's Foreign Minister walks out of the Political Committee during the discussion of Jordan's annexation of Arab Palestine. May 15: The Political Committee agrees that Jordan's annexation of Arab Palestine was illegal and violated the Arab League resolution of Apr. 12, 1948. A meeting is called for June 12 to decide whether to expel Jordan or take punitive action against her.
  34. ^ Naseer Hasan Aruri (1972). Jordan: a study in political development (1921-1965). Springer. p. 90. ISBN 978-90-247-1217-5. Retrieved 22 December 2010. The annexation of Palestine was, therefore, condemned by the Arab League's Political Committee on May 15, 1950. A motion to expel Jordan from the League was prevented by the dissenting votes of Yemen and Iraq
  35. ^ Ronen Yitzhak (18 February 2022). Abdullah al-Tall - Arab Legion Officer: Arab Nationalism and Opposition to the Hashemite Regime. Liverpool University Press. ISBN 978-1-80207-224-2.
  36. ^ Blum, Yehuda Z. (29 September 2016). Will "Justice" Bring Peace?: International Law - Selected Articles and Legal Opinions. BRILL. pp. 230–231. ISBN 978-90-04-23395-9. On April 13, 1950... the Council of the Arab League decided that "annexation of Arab Palestine by any Arab State would be considered a violation of the League Charter, and subject to sanctions." Three weeks after the said proclamation - on May 15, 1950 - the Political Committee of the Arab League, in an extraordinary session in Cairo, decided, without objection (Jordan herself was absent from the meeting), that the Jordanian annexation measure constituted a violation of the Council's resolution of April 13, 1950, and considered the expulsion of Jordan from the League; but it was decided that discussion of punitive measures be postponed to another meeting, set for June 12, 1950. At that meeting of the League Council it had before it Jordanian Memorandum asserting that "annexation of Arab Palestine was irrevocable, although without prejudice to any final settlement of the Palestine question." This formula enabled the Council to adopt a face-saving resolution "to treat the Arab part of Palestine annexed by Jordan as a trust in its hands until the Palestine case is fully solved in the interests of its inhabitants."
  37. ^ Joseph Nevo (1984). "Peace Negotiations Between Israel and Jordan After the 1948 and 1967 Wars: A Comparative Survey". The Journal of Conflict Studies. 4: 39–55. Nevertheless, in return for the suspension of contacts with Israel, Abdallah extracted a high price: a de facto recognition of the annexation of the West Bank which the Arab states had thus far refused to give. In the summer of 1950 the Arab League adopted a resolution allowing the Jordanian Government to declare... that the annexation of the part of Palestine in question was a measure necessitated by practical considerations, that Jordan would hold that part on trust until a final settlement of the Palestine question was reached and that Jordan would accept in regard to it whatever might be unanimously decided by the other member states.
  38. ^ Sicker, Martin (2001). The Middle East in the twentieth century. Greenwood. p. 187. ISBN 978-0-275-96893-9.
  39. ^ El-Hasan, Hasan Afif (2010). Is the Two-State Solution Already Dead?. Algora. p. 64. ISBN 978-0-87586-792-2.
  40. ^ Martin Gilbert (12 September 1996). Jerusalem in the twentieth century. J. Wiley & Sons. p. 254. ISBN 978-0-471-16308-4. Retrieved 22 December 2010.
  41. ^ Tamar Mayer; Suleiman Ali Mourad (2008). Jerusalem: idea and reality. Taylor & Francis. p. 260. ISBN 978-0-415-42128-7. Retrieved 22 December 2010.
  42. ^ a b "JORDAN AND ISRAEL (GOVERNMENT DECISION)". Parliamentary Debates (Hansard). 27 April 1950.
  43. ^ Silverburg, S. R. (1983). "Pakistan and the West Bank: A research note". Middle Eastern Studies. 19 (2): 261–63. doi:10.1080/00263208308700547.
  44. ^ P. R. Kumaraswamy (March 2000). "Beyond the Veil: Israel-Pakistan Relations" (PDF). Memorandum No. 55. Tel Aviv, Israel: Jaffee Center for Strategic Studies, Tel Aviv University.
  45. ^ Quigley, John B. (2010). The statehood of Palestine: international law in the Middle East conflict. Cambridge University Press. p. 119. ISBN 978-0-521-15165-8. "Of the states of the world, only Britain and Pakistan formally recognized the merger.
  46. ^ Dumper, Michael (2014). Jerusalem Unbound: Geography, History, and the Future of the Holy City. New York: Columbia University Press. p. 48. ISBN 978-0-231-53735-3.
  47. ^ Friedland, Roger; Hecht, Richard (2000). To Rule Jerusalem. Berkeley: University of California Press. p. 39. ISBN 978-0-520-22092-8.
  48. ^ Thomas A Idinopulos, Jerusalem, 1994, p. 300, "So severe were the Jordanian restrictions against Jews gaining access to the old city that visitors wishing to cross over from west Jerusalem...had to produce a baptismal certificate."
  49. ^ Armstrong, Karen, Jerusalem: One City, Three Faiths, 1997, "Only clergy, diplomats, UN personnel, and a few privileged tourists were permitted to go from one side to the other. The Jordanians required most tourists to produce baptismal certificates – to prove they were not Jewish ... ."
  50. ^ Martin Gilbert (1996). 'Jerusalem in the Twentieth Century. Pimlico. p. 254.
  51. ^ Collins (1973), pp. 492–94.
  52. ^ Benny Morris (1 October 2008). 1948: A History of the First Arab-Israeli War. Yale University Press. p. 218. ISBN 978-0-300-14524-3. Retrieved 14 July 2013. On 26–27 May, the Legionnaires took the Hurvat Israel (or "Hurva") Synagogue, the quarter's largest and most sacred building, and then, without reason, blew it up. "This affair will rankle for generations in the heart of world Jewry," predicted one Foreign Office official. The destruction of the synagogue shook Jewish morale.
  53. ^ Oren, M. (2003). Six Days of War. New York: Ballantine Books. p. 307. ISBN 978-0-345-46192-6.
  54. ^ Michael J. Totten. "Between the Green Line and the Blue Line". City-journal.org. Archived from the original on 3 March 2016. Retrieved 20 April 2014.
  55. ^ Mark A. Tessler. (1994). A History of the Israeli-Palestinian Conflict. Indiana University Press. p. 329. Retrieved 23 April 2015. Jordan's illegal occupation and Annexation of the West Bank
  56. ^ Yehuda Lukacs (1 December 1999). Israel, Jordan, and Peace Process. Syracuse University Press. pp. 23–25. ISBN 978-0-8156-2855-2.
  57. ^ "Jordan and the Palestinians". Jordan and the Palestinians:The Severance of Administrative Ties to the West Bank and its Implications (1988). Contemporain publications. Presses de l’Ifpo. 2013. pp. 230–245. ISBN 978-2-35159-438-4. Retrieved 27 April 2020.
  58. ^ "Jordan Drops $1.3 Billion Plan For West Bank Development". The New York Times. 29 July 1988.
  59. ^ "The Toronto Star Archive". Archived from the original on 16 February 2017. Retrieved 15 October 2018.
  60. ^ Kifner, John (1 August 1988). "Hussein surrenders claims on West Bank to the P.L.O.; U.S. peace plan in jeopardy; Internal Tensions". New York Times. p. A1.
  61. ^ Shaul Cohen (2007). West Bank. Microsoft Encarta Online Encyclopedia. Archived from the original on 21 October 2009.
  62. ^ a b "Jordan – History – The Madrid Peace Process". The Royal Hashemite Court.
  63. ^ "The Washington Declaration". The Royal Hashemite Court.

Sources

Further reading

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