Jump to content

22q13 deletion syndrome

From Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia
(Redirected from Phelan–McDermid syndrome)

22q13 deletion syndrome
Other namesPhelan–McDermid syndrome
Chromosome 22 mutations cause 22q13 syndrome.
SpecialtyGenetics Edit this on Wikidata

22q13 deletion syndrome, known as Phelan–McDermid syndrome (PMS), is a genetic disorder caused by deletions or rearrangements on the q terminal end (long arm) of chromosome 22. Any abnormal genetic variation in the q13 region that presents with significant manifestations (phenotype) typical of a terminal deletion may be diagnosed as 22q13 deletion syndrome. There is disagreement among researchers as to the exact definition of 22q13 deletion syndrome.[1] The Developmental Synaptopathies Consortium defines PMS as being caused by SHANK3 mutations, a definition that appears to exclude terminal deletions.[2] The requirement to include SHANK3 in the definition is supported by many but not by those who first described 22q13 deletion syndrome.[3]

Prototypical terminal deletion of 22q13 can be uncovered by karyotype analysis, but many terminal and interstitial deletions are too small. The availability of DNA microarray technology for revealing multiple genetic problems simultaneously has been the diagnostic tool of choice. The falling cost for the whole exome sequencing and, eventually, whole genome sequencing, may replace DNA microarray technology for candidate evaluation. However, fluorescence in situ hybridization (FISH) tests remain valuable for diagnosing cases of mosaicism (mosaic genetics) and chromosomal rearrangements (e.g., ring chromosome, unbalanced chromosomal translocation). Although early researchers sought a monogenic (single gene genetic disorder) explanation, recent studies have not supported that hypothesis (see Etiology).

Signs and symptoms

[edit]

Affected individuals present with a broad array of medical and behavioral manifestations (tables 1 and 2).[4][5][6][7] Patients are consistently characterized by global developmental delay, intellectual disability, speech abnormalities, ASD-like behaviors, hypotonia and mild dysmorphic features.[4][6][7][8][9][10][11][12][13][14][15][16] Table 1 summarizes the dysmorphic and medical conditions that have been reported in individuals with PMS. Table 2 summarizes the psychiatric and neurological symptoms associated with PMS. Most of the studies include small samples or relied on parental report or medical record review to collect information, which can account in part for the variability in the presentation of some of the presenting features. Larger prospective studies are needed to further characterize the phenotype.

Table 1: dysmorphic features and medical comorbid conditions that have been reported in individuals with Phelan–McDermid syndrome
Dysmorphic feature Percentage (%) Medical comorbidities Percentage (%)
Macrocephaly 7–31 Hypothyroidism 3–6
Microcephaly 11–14 Sleep disturbance 41–46
Dolichocephaly 23–86 Gastroesophageal reflux 42–44
Long eyelashes 43–93 Increased pain threshold 10–88
Bulbous nose 47–80 Constipation/diarrhea 38–41
High-arched palate 25–47 Brain imaging abnormalities 7–75
Malocclusion/widely spaced teeth 19 Recurrent upper respiratory infections 8–53
Full cheeks 25 Renal abnormalities 17–26
Pointed chin 22–62 Lymphedema 8–53
Large fleshy hands 33–68 Seizures 14–41
Hypoplastic/dysplastic nails 3–78 Strabismus 6–26
Hyper-extensibility 25–61 Short stature 11–13
Abnormal spine curvature 22 Tall stature/accelerated growth 3–18
Sacral dimple 13–37 Cardiac defects 3–25
Syndactyly of toes 2 and 3 48 Precocious or delayed puberty 12
Table 2: psychiatric and neurologic manifestations associated with Phelan–McDermid syndrome
Psychiatric and neurologic manifestations Percentage (%)
Autism spectrum disorder >25
Intellectual disability ~100
Global developmental delay ~100
Absent or severely affected speech >75
Sensory seeking behaviors (mouthing of objects) >25
Teeth grinding >25
Hyperactivity and inattention >50
Stereotypical movements >50
Hypotonia >50
Fine and gross motor abnormalities >90
Poor fine motor coordination >90
Gait abnormalities >90
Visual tracking abnormalities >85
Seizure disorder 17–41
Brain structural abnormalities 44–100
Sleep problems >40

Cause

[edit]

Various deletions affect the terminal region of the long arm of chromosome 22 (the paternal chromosome in 75% of cases,[citation needed]) from 22q13.3 to 22qter. Although the deletion is most typically a result of a de novo mutation, there is an inherited form resulting from familial chromosomal translocations involving the 22 chromosome. In the de novo form, the size of the terminal deletion is variable and can go from 130 Kb (130,000 base pairs) to 9 Mb. Deletions smaller than 1 Mb are very rare (about 3%). The remaining 97% of terminal deletions impact about 30 to 190 genes (see list, below). At one time it was thought that deletion size was not related to the core clinical features.[17] That observation lead to an emphasis on the SHANK3 gene, which resides close to the terminal end of chromosome 22. Interest in SHANK3 grew as it became associated with autism spectrum disorder (ASD) and schizophrenia.[18] Since then, twelve other genes on 22q13 (MAPK8IP2,[19] CHKB,[20] SCO2,[21] SBF1,[22] PLXNB2,[23] MAPK12,[24] PANX2,[25] BRD1,[26] CELSR1,[27] WNT7B,[28] TCF20[29]) have been associated with autism spectrum disorder and/or schizophrenia (see references below). Some mutations of SHANK3 mimic 22q13 deletion syndrome, but SHANK3 mutations and microdeletions have quite variable impact.[citation needed]

Some of the core features of 22q13 deletion syndrome are dependent upon deletion size, and do not depend on the loss of SHANK3.[30][31][32] As noted above, the distal 1 Mb of 22q is a gene rich region. There are too few clinical cases to statistically measure the relationship between deletion size and phenotype in this region. SHANK3 is also adjacent to a gene cluster (ARSA and MAPK8IP2)[33] that has a high probability of contributing to ASD,[34] suggesting the effects of SHANK3 deletion may be indistinguishable from other genetic losses. A landmark study of induced pluripotent stem cell neurons cultured from patients with 22q13 deletion syndrome shows that restoration of the SHANK3 protein produces a significant, but incomplete rescue of membrane receptors, supporting both a substantial role for SHANK3 and an additional role for other genes in the distal 1 Mb of chromosome 22.[35]

There is an interest in the impact of MAPK8IP2 (also called IB2) in 22q13 deletion syndrome.[36] MAPK8IP2 is especially interesting because it regulates the balance between NMDA receptors and AMPA receptors.[37] The genes SULT4A1[38] and PARVB[39] may cause 22q13 deletion syndrome in cases of more proximal interstitial and large terminal deletions.[32] There are about 187 protein coding genes in the 22q13 region.[40] A group of genes (MPPED1,[41] CYB5R3,[42] FBLN1,[43] NUP50,[44] C22ORF9,[45] KIAA1644,[46] PARVB,[39] TRMU,[47] WNT7B[48] and ATXN10[49]), as well as microRNAs may all contribute to loss of language, a feature that varies notably with deletion size.[50] The same study found that macrocephaly seen in 22q13 deletion syndrome patients may be associated with WNT7B. FBLN1 is responsible for synpolydactyly as well as its contribution to the neurological manifestations (OMIM 608180).

RABL2B ACR SHANK3 ARSA MAPK8IP2 CHKB CPT1B SYCE3 KLHDC7B ODF3B TYMP SCO2
NCAPH2 LMF2 MIOX ADM2 SBF1 PPP6R2 DENND6B PLXNB2 MAPK11 MAPK12 HDAC10 TUBGCP6
SELO TRABD PANX2 MOV10L1 MLC1 IL17REL PIM3 CRELD2 ALG12 ZBED4 BRD1 FAM19A5
FLJ32756 TBC1D22A CERK GRAMD4 CELSR1 TRMU BC069212 GTSE1 TTC38 PKDREJ CDPF1 PPARA
WNT7B ATXN10 FBLN1 RIBC2 SMC1B FAM118A UPK3A KIAA0930 NUP50 PHF21B PRR5-ARHGAP8 LDOC1L
KIAA1644 PARVG TRNA_SeC PARVB SAMM50 PNPLA3 PNPLA5 SULT4A1 EFCAB6 MPPED1 SCUBE1 TTLL12
TSPO MCAT BIK TTLL1 PACSIN2 ARFGAP3 A4GALT ATP5L2 DL490307 CYB5R3 RNU12 POLDIP3
SERHL2 RRP7A NFAM1 TCF20 CYP2D6 NDUFA6 SMDT1 FAM109B NAGA WBP2NL CENPM TNFRSF13C
SHISA8 SREBF2 CCDC134 MEI1 C22orf46 NHP2L1 XRCC6 DESI1 PMM1 CSDC2 POLR3H ACO2
PHF5A TOB2 TEF ZC3H7B RANGAP1 CHADL L3MBTL2 EP300 RBX1 DNAJB7 XPNPEP3 ST13
SLC25A17 MCHR1 MKL1 SGSM3 ADSL TNRC6B FAM83F GRAP2 ENTHD1 CACNA1I RPS19BP1 ATF4
SMCR7L MGAT3 TAB1 SNORD43 RPL3 PDGFB CBX7 APOBEC3H APOBEC3F APOBEC3D APOBEC3C APOBEC3B
CBX6 NPTXR DNAL4 SUN2 GTPBP1 JOSD1 TOMM22 CBY1 FAM227A DMC1 DDX17 KDELR3
KCNJ4 CSNK1E TMEM184B MAFF MAFF PLA2G6 BAIAP2L2 SLC16A8 PICK1 SOX10 POLR2F C22orf23
MICALL1 EIF3L ANKRD54 GALR3 GCAT H1F0 TRIOBP NOL12 LGALS1 SH3BP1 GGA1 LGALS2
CDC42EP1 CARD10 MFNG ELFN2 CYTH4

Table of protein coding genes involved in 22q13 deletion syndrome (based on Human Genome Browser – hg38 assembly [51]). Underline identifies 13 genes that are associated with autism.[52][53][54][55] Bold identifies genes associated with hypotonia (based on Human Phenotype Browser [56] search for 'hypotonia' and the OMIM database [57]).

Diagnosis and management

[edit]

Clinical genetics and genetic testing

[edit]

Genetic testing is necessary to confirm the diagnosis of PMS. A prototypical terminal deletion of 22q13 can be uncovered by karyotype analysis, but many terminal and interstitial deletions are too small to detect with this method.[8][58] Chromosomal microarray should be ordered in children with suspected developmental delays or ASD.[59][60] Most cases will be identified by microarray; however, small variations in genes might be missed. The falling cost for whole exome sequencing may replace DNA microarray technology for candidate gene evaluation. Biological parents should be tested with fluorescence in situ hybridization (FISH) to rule out balanced translocations or inversions. Balanced translocation in a parent increases the risk for recurrence and heritability within families (figure 3).[61]

Clinical genetic evaluations and dysmorphology exams should be done to evaluate growth, pubertal development, dysmorphic features (table 1) and screen for organ defects (table 2)

Cognitive and behavioral assessment

[edit]

All patients should undergo comprehensive developmental, cognitive and behavioral assessments by clinicians with experience in developmental disorders. Cognitive evaluation should be tailored for individuals with significant language and developmental delays.[8] All patients should be referred for specialized speech/language, occupational and physical therapy evaluations.

Neurological management

[edit]

Individuals with PMS should be followed by a pediatric neurologist regularly to monitor motor development, coordination, and gait, as well as conditions that might be associated with hypotonia.[9] Head circumference should be performed routinely up until 36 months. Given the high rate of seizure disorders (up to 41% of patients) reported in the literature in patients with PMS and its overall negative impact on development, an overnight video EEG should be considered early to rule out seizure activity. In addition, a baseline structural brain MRI should be considered to rule out the presence of structural abnormalities.[5]

Nephrology

[edit]

All patients should have a baseline renal and bladder ultrasonography and a voiding cystourethrogram should be considered to rule out structural and functional abnormalities. Renal abnormalities are reported in up to 38% of patients with PMS.[62][63] Vesicouretral reflux, hydronephrosis, renal agenesis, dysplastic kidney, polycystic kidney and recurrent urinary tract infections have all been reported in patients with PMS.

Cardiology

[edit]

Congenital heart defects (CHD) are reported in samples of children with PMS with varying frequency (up to 25%)(29,36). The most common CHD include tricuspid valve regurgitation, atrial septal defects and patent ductus arteriosus. Cardiac evaluation, including echocardiography and electrocardiogram, should be considered.[8]

Gastroenterology

[edit]

Gastrointestinal symptoms are common in individuals with PMS. Gastroesophageal reflux, constipation, diarrhea and cyclic vomiting are frequently described.[64]

Table 3: Clinical Assessment Recommendations in Phelan–McDermid Syndrome

Medical Specialty Assessment Recommended
Primary Care/Development Pediatrics Careful and routine monitoring
Hearing Assessment
Visual Assessment
Monitoring of height, weight, and BMI
Otolaryngology (ENT)
Pediatric dentistry
Physiatrist/physical therapy
Psychiatric and Psychology Psychiatric evaluation with a focus on autism spectrum disorder
Autism Diagnostic Observation Schedule (ADOS)
Cognitive or Developmental Assessment
Speech and Language Evaluation/Therapy
Adaptive Function Testing
Educational Assessment
Occupational Therapy
Neurology motor development, coordination, and gait monitoring, as well as conditions that might be associated with hypotonia, like neuromuscular scoliosis and feeding problems
Overnight video EEG
Structural brain MRI
Head circumference up to 36 months
Nephrology Renal and bladder ultrasonography
Cardiology Echocardiogram
Electrocardiogram
Endocrinology Thyroid function
Nutritional assessment

Epidemiology

[edit]

The true prevalence of PMS has not been determined. More than 1,200 people have been identified worldwide according to the Phelan–McDermid Syndrome Foundation.[65] However, it is believed to be underdiagnosed due to inadequate genetic testing and lack of specific clinical features. It is known to occur with equal frequency in males and females. Studies using chromosomal microarray for diagnosis indicate that at least 0.5% of cases of ASD can be explained by mutations or deletions in the SHANK3 gene.[58] In addition, when ASD is associated with ID, SHANK3 mutations or deletions have been found in up to 2% of individuals.[66][67]

History

[edit]

The first case of PMS was described in 1985 by Watt et al., who described a 14-year-old boy with severe intellectual disability, mild dysmorphic features and absent speech, which was associated with terminal loss of the distal arm of chromosome 22.[68] In 1988, Phelan et al. described a similar clinical presentation associated with a de novo deletion in 22q13.3. Subsequent cases were described in the following years with a similar clinical presentation. Phelan et al. (2001), compared 37 subjects with 22q13 deletions with features of 24 cases described in the literature finding that the most common features were global developmental delay, absent or delayed speech and hypotonia. In 2001, Bonaglia et al.,[69] described a case that associated the 22q.13 deletion syndrome with a disruption of the SHANK3 gene (also called ProSAP2). The following year, Anderlid et al. (2002),[70] refined the area in 22q13 presumably responsible for the common phenotypic presentation of the syndrome to a 100kb in 22q13.3. Out of the three genes affected, SHANK3 was identified as the critical gene due to its expression pattern and function. Wilson et al.[71] (2003) evaluated 56 patients with the clinical presentation of PMS, all of whom had a functional loss of one copy of the SHANK3 gene. However, later the same group demonstrated that loss of SHANK3 gene was not an essential requirement for the disorder.[72]

See also

[edit]

Notes

[edit]
  1. ^ Phelan K, Boccuto L, Rogers RC, Sarasua SM, McDermid HE (2015). "Letter to the editor regarding Disciglio et al.: interstitial 22q13 deletions not involving SHANK3 gene: a new contiguous gene syndrome". Am J Med Genet A. 167 (7): 1679–80. doi:10.1002/ajmg.a.36788. PMID 26295085. S2CID 36651351.
  2. ^ https://www.rarediseasesnetwork.org/cms/dsc/About-Us (downloaded 21-September-2015)
  3. ^ Phelan MC, McDermid HE (2011). "The 22q13.3 Deletion Syndrome (Phelan-McDermid Syndrome)". Mol Syndromol. 2 (1): 186–201. doi:10.1159/000334260. PMC 3366702. PMID 22670140.
  4. ^ a b Sarasua SM, Dwivedi A, Boccuto L, Chen CF, Sharp JL, Rollins JD, Collins JS, Rogers RC, Phelan K (2014-04-01). "22q13.2q13.32 genomic regions associated with severity of speech delay, developmental delay, and physical features in Phelan-McDermid syndrome". Genetics in Medicine. 16 (4): 318–328. doi:10.1038/gim.2013.144. ISSN 1530-0366. PMID 24136618.
  5. ^ a b Philippe A, Boddaert N, Vaivre-Douret L, Robel L, Danon-Boileau L, Malan V, Blois MC, Heron D, Colleaux L (2008-08-01). "Neurobehavioral Profile and Brain Imaging Study of the 22q13.3 Deletion Syndrome in Childhood". Pediatrics. 122 (2): e376–e382. doi:10.1542/peds.2007-2584. ISSN 0031-4005. PMID 18625665. S2CID 3276179.
  6. ^ a b Sarasua SM, Dwivedi A, Boccuto L, Rollins JD, Chen CF, Rogers RC, Phelan K, DuPont BR, Collins JS (2011-11-01). "Association between deletion size and important phenotypes expands the genomic region of interest in Phelan-McDermid syndrome (22q13 deletion syndrome)". Journal of Medical Genetics. 48 (11): 761–766. doi:10.1136/jmedgenet-2011-100225. ISSN 1468-6244. PMID 21984749. S2CID 28620399.
  7. ^ a b Luciani JJ, de Mas P, Depetris D, Mignon-Ravix C, Bottani A, Prieur M, Jonveaux P, Philippe A, Bourrouillou G (2003-09-01). "Telomeric 22q13 deletions resulting from rings, simple deletions, and translocations: cytogenetic, molecular, and clinical analyses of 32 new observations". Journal of Medical Genetics. 40 (9): 690–696. doi:10.1136/jmg.40.9.690. ISSN 1468-6244. PMC 1735584. PMID 12960216.
  8. ^ a b c d Kolevzon A, Angarita B, Bush L, Wang AT, Frank Y, Yang A, Rapaport R, Saland J, Srivastava S (2014-01-01). "Phelan-McDermid syndrome: a review of the literature and practice parameters for medical assessment and monitoring". Journal of Neurodevelopmental Disorders. 6 (1): 39. doi:10.1186/1866-1955-6-39. ISSN 1866-1947. PMC 4362650. PMID 25784960.
  9. ^ a b Manning MA, Cassidy SB, Clericuzio C, Cherry AM, Schwartz S, Hudgins L, Enns GM, Hoyme HE (2004-08-01). "Terminal 22q deletion syndrome: a newly recognized cause of speech and language disability in the autism spectrum". Pediatrics. 114 (2): 451–457. doi:10.1542/peds.114.2.451. ISSN 1098-4275. PMID 15286229.
  10. ^ Nesslinger NJ, Gorski JL, Kurczynski TW, Shapira SK, Siegel-Bartelt J, Dumanski JP, Cullen RF, French BN, McDermid HE (1994-03-01). "Clinical, cytogenetic, and molecular characterization of seven patients with deletions of chromosome 22q13.3". American Journal of Human Genetics. 54 (3): 464–472. ISSN 0002-9297. PMC 1918126. PMID 7906921.
  11. ^ Koolen DA, Reardon W, Rosser EM, Lacombe D, Hurst JA, Law CJ, Bongers EM, van Ravenswaaij-Arts CM, Leisink MA (2005-09-01). "Molecular characterisation of patients with subtelomeric 22q abnormalities using chromosome specific array-based comparative genomic hybridisation". European Journal of Human Genetics. 13 (9): 1019–1024. doi:10.1038/sj.ejhg.5201456. ISSN 1018-4813. PMID 15986041.
  12. ^ Hannachi H, Mougou S, Benabdallah I, Soayh N, Kahloul N, Gaddour N, Le Lorc'h M, Sanlaville D, El Ghezal H (2013-01-01). "Molecular and phenotypic characterization of ring chromosome 22 in two unrelated patients". Cytogenetic and Genome Research. 140 (1): 1–11. doi:10.1159/000350785. ISSN 1424-859X. PMID 23635516. S2CID 25287674.
  13. ^ Cusmano-Ozog K, Manning MA, Hoyme HE (2007-11-15). "22q13.3 deletion syndrome: a recognizable malformation syndrome associated with marked speech and language delay". American Journal of Medical Genetics Part C. 145C (4): 393–398. doi:10.1002/ajmg.c.30155. ISSN 1552-4876. PMID 17926345. S2CID 25733076.
  14. ^ Rollins JD, Sarasua SM, Phelan K, DuPont BR, Rogers RC, Collins JS (2011-09-01). "Growth in Phelan-McDermid syndrome". American Journal of Medical Genetics Part A. 155A (9): 2324–2326. doi:10.1002/ajmg.a.34158. ISSN 1552-4833. PMID 21834045. S2CID 20565974.
  15. ^ Dhar S, del Gaudio D, German J, Peters S, Ou Z, Bader P, Berg J, Blazo M, Brown C (2010-03-01). "22q13.3 Deletion Syndrome: Clinical and Molecular Analysis Using Array CGH". American Journal of Medical Genetics Part A. 152A (3): 573–581. doi:10.1002/ajmg.a.33253. ISSN 1552-4825. PMC 3119894. PMID 20186804.
  16. ^ Denayer A, Esch HV, Ravel Td, Frijns JP, Buggenhout GV, Vogels A, Devriendt K, Geutjens J, Thiry P (2012). "Neuropsychopathology in 7 Patients with the 22q13 Deletion Syndrome: Presence of Bipolar Disorder and Progressive Loss of Skills". Molecular Syndromology. 3 (1): 14–20. doi:10.1159/000339119. PMC 3398818. PMID 22855650.
  17. ^ Wilson HL, Wong AC, Shaw SR, et al. (2003). "Molecular characterisation of the 22q13 deletion syndrome supports the role of haploinsufficiency of SHANK3/PROSAP2 in the major neurological symptoms". J. Med. Genet. 40 (8): 575–84. doi:10.1136/jmg.40.8.575. PMC 1735560. PMID 12920066.
  18. ^ Gauthier, et al. (2010). "De novo mutations in the gene encoding the synaptic scaffolding protein SHANK3 in patients ascertained for schizophrenia". Proc. Natl. Acad. Sci. USA. 107 (17): 7863–8. Bibcode:2010PNAS..107.7863G. doi:10.1073/pnas.0906232107. PMC 2867875. PMID 20385823.
  19. ^ "MAPK8IP2 Gene - GeneCards | JIP2 Protein | JIP2 Antibody".
  20. ^ "CHKB Gene - GeneCards | CHKB Protein | CHKB Antibody".
  21. ^ "SCO2 Gene - GeneCards | SCO2 Protein | SCO2 Antibody". www.genecards.org.
  22. ^ "SBF1 Gene - GeneCards | MTMR5 Protein | MTMR5 Antibody".
  23. ^ "PLXNB2 Gene - GeneCards | PLXB2 Protein | PLXB2 Antibody".
  24. ^ "MAPK12 Gene - GeneCards | MK12 Protein | MK12 Antibody".
  25. ^ "Panx2 related genes - GeneCards Search Results".
  26. ^ "Brd1 related genes - GeneCards Search Results".
  27. ^ "CELSR1 Gene - GeneCards | CELR1 Protein | CELR1 Antibody".
  28. ^ "WNT7B Gene - GeneCards | WNT7B Protein | WNT7B Antibody".
  29. ^ "TCF20 Gene - GeneCards | TCF20 Protein | TCF20 Antibody".
  30. ^ Sarasua SM, et al. (2011). "Association between deletion size and important phenotypes expands the genomic region of interest in Phelan-McDermid syndrome (22q13 deletion syndrome)". J Med Genet. 48 (11): 761–6. doi:10.1136/jmedgenet-2011-100225. PMID 21984749. S2CID 28620399.
  31. ^ Simenson K, et al. (2013). "A patient with the classic features of Phelan-McDermid syndrome and a high immunoglobulin E level caused by a cryptic interstitial 0.72-Mb deletion in the 22q13.2 region". Am J Med Genet A. 164A (3): 806–9. doi:10.1002/ajmg.a.36358. PMID 24375995. S2CID 7917552.
  32. ^ a b Disciglio V, et al. (2014). "Interstitial 22q13 Deletions Not Involving SHANK3 Gene: A New Contiguous Gene Syndrome". Am J Med Genet A. 164 (7): 1666–76. doi:10.1002/ajmg.a.36513. PMID 24700646. S2CID 205318899.
  33. ^ Andrews T, et al. (2015). "The clustering of functionally related genes contributes to CNV-mediated disease". Genome Res. 25 (6): 802–13. doi:10.1101/gr.184325.114. PMC 4448677. PMID 25887030.
  34. ^ Krishnan A, et al. (2016). "Genome-wide prediction and functional characterization of the genetic basis of autism spectrum disorder". Nature Neuroscience. 19 (11): 1454–62. doi:10.1038/nn.4353. PMC 5803797. PMID 27479844.
  35. ^ Shcheglovitov A, et al. (2013). "SHANK3 and IGF1 restore synaptic deficits in neurons from 22q13 deletion syndrome patients". Nature. 503 (7475): 267–71. Bibcode:2013Natur.503..267S. doi:10.1038/nature12618. PMC 5559273. PMID 24132240.
  36. ^ Aldinger KA, et al. (2013). "Cerebellar and posterior fossa malformations in patients with autism-associated chromosome 22q13 terminal deletion". Am J Med Genet A. 161 (1): 131–6. doi:10.1002/ajmg.a.35700. PMC 3733662. PMID 23225497.
  37. ^ Giza J, et al. (2010). "Behavioral and cerebellar transmission deficits in mice lacking the autism-linked gene islet brain-2". J. Neurosci. 30 (44): 14805–16. doi:10.1523/JNEUROSCI.1161-10.2010. PMC 3200367. PMID 21048139.
  38. ^ "SULT4A1 Gene - GeneCards | ST4A1 Protein | ST4A1 Antibody".
  39. ^ a b "PARVB Gene - GeneCards | PARVB Protein | PARVB Antibody".
  40. ^ "UCSC Genome Browser Home". genome.ucsc.edu.
  41. ^ "MPPED1 Gene - GeneCards | MPPD1 Protein | MPPD1 Antibody".
  42. ^ "CYB5R3 Gene - GeneCards | NB5R3 Protein | NB5R3 Antibody".
  43. ^ "FBLN1 Gene - GeneCards | FBLN1 Protein | FBLN1 Antibody".
  44. ^ "NUP50 Gene - GeneCards | NUP50 Protein | NUP50 Antibody".
  45. ^ "KIAA0930 Gene - GeneCards | K0930 Protein | K0930 Antibody".
  46. ^ "SHISAL1 Gene - GeneCards | SHSL1 Protein | SHSL1 Antibody".
  47. ^ "TRMU Gene - GeneCards | MTU1 Protein | MTU1 Antibody".
  48. ^ "WNT7B Gene - GeneCards | WNT7B Protein | WNT7B Antibody".
  49. ^ "ATXN10 Gene - GeneCards | ATX10 Protein | ATX10 Antibody".
  50. ^ Sarasua SM, et al. (2014). "Clinical and genomic evaluation of 201 patients with Phelan–McDermid syndrome". Human Genetics. 133 (7): 847–59. doi:10.1007/s00439-014-1423-7. PMID 24481935. S2CID 2910785.
  51. ^ "UCSC Genome Browser Home". genome.ucsc.edu.
  52. ^ "Human Gene Module".
  53. ^ Napoli E, et al. (2012). "Mitochondrial Dysfunction in Pten Haplo-Insufficient Mice with Social Deficits and Repetitive Behavior: Interplay between Pten and p53". PLoS ONE. 7 (8): 1–13. Bibcode:2012PLoSO...742504N. doi:10.1371/journal.pone.0042504. PMC 3416855. PMID 22900024.
  54. ^ Iossifov I, et al. (2015). "Low load for disruptive mutations in autism genes and their biased transmission". Proc Natl Acad Sci USA. 112 (41): E5600–7. Bibcode:2015PNAS..112E5600I. doi:10.1073/pnas.1516376112. PMC 4611648. PMID 26401017.
  55. ^ Davis LK, et al. (2012). "Loci nominally associated with autism from genome-wide analysis show enrichment of brain expression quantitative trait loci but not lymphoblastoid cell line expression quantitative trait loci". Molecular Autism. 3 (1): 3. doi:10.1186/2040-2392-3-3. PMC 3484025. PMID 22591576.
  56. ^ Home | Human Phenotype Ontology
  57. ^ "OMIM - Online Mendelian Inheritance in Man". omim.org. Archived from the original on October 26, 2011.
  58. ^ a b Durand CM, Betancur C, Boeckers TM, Bockmann J, Chaste P, Fauchereau F, Nygren G, Rastam M, Gillberg IC (2007-01-01). "Mutations in the gene encoding the synaptic scaffolding protein SHANK3 are associated with autism spectrum disorders". Nature Genetics. 39 (1): 25–27. doi:10.1038/ng1933. ISSN 1061-4036. PMC 2082049. PMID 17173049.
  59. ^ Schaefer GB, Mendelsohn NJ, Committee for the Professional Practice and Guidelines (2013-05-01). "Clinical genetics evaluation in identifying the etiology of autism spectrum disorders: 2013 guideline revisions". Genetics in Medicine. 15 (5): 399–407. doi:10.1038/gim.2013.32. ISSN 1098-3600. PMID 23519317. S2CID 2374142.
  60. ^ Manning M, Hudgins L (2010-11-01). "Array-based technology and recommendations for utilization in medical genetics practice for detection of chromosomal abnormalities". Genetics in Medicine. 12 (11): 742–745. doi:10.1097/GIM.0b013e3181f8baad. ISSN 1098-3600. PMC 3111046. PMID 20962661.
  61. ^ Phelan K, Betancur C (2011-04-01). "Clinical utility gene card for: Deletion 22q13 syndrome". European Journal of Human Genetics. 19 (4): 492. doi:10.1038/ejhg.2010.193. ISSN 1018-4813. PMC 3060317. PMID 21150887.
  62. ^ Kirkpatrick BE, El-Khechen D (2011-01-01). "A unique presentation of 22q13 deletion syndrome: multicystic kidney, orofacial clefting, and Wilms' tumor". Clinical Dysmorphology. 20 (1): 53–54. doi:10.1097/MCD.0b013e32833effb1. ISSN 1473-5717. PMID 20827177.
  63. ^ Jeffries AR, Curran S, Elmslie F, Sharma A, Wenger S, Hummel M, Powell J (2005-08-30). "Molecular and phenotypic characterization of ring chromosome 22". American Journal of Medical Genetics Part A. 137 (2): 139–147. doi:10.1002/ajmg.a.30780. ISSN 1552-4825. PMID 16059935. S2CID 21211829.
  64. ^ Dhar SU, del Gaudio D, German JR, Peters SU, Ou Z, Bader PI, Berg JS, Blazo M, Brown CW (2010-03-01). "22q13.3 deletion syndrome: clinical and molecular analysis using array CGH". American Journal of Medical Genetics Part A. 152A (3): 573–581. doi:10.1002/ajmg.a.33253. ISSN 1552-4833. PMC 3119894. PMID 20186804.
  65. ^ https://pmsf.org/
  66. ^ Oberman LM, Boccuto L, Cascio L, Sarasua S, Kaufmann WE (2015-08-27). "Autism spectrum disorder in Phelan-McDermid syndrome: initial characterization and genotype–phenotype correlations". Orphanet Journal of Rare Diseases. 10 (1): 105. doi:10.1186/s13023-015-0323-9. ISSN 1750-1172. PMC 4549933. PMID 26306707.
  67. ^ Boccuto L, Lauri M, Sarasua SM, Skinner CD, Buccella D, Dwivedi A, Orteschi D, Collins JS, Zollino M (2013-03-01). "Prevalence of SHANK3 variants in patients with different subtypes of autism spectrum disorders". European Journal of Human Genetics. 21 (3): 310–316. doi:10.1038/ejhg.2012.175. ISSN 1018-4813. PMC 3573207. PMID 22892527.
  68. ^ Watt JL, Olson IA, Johnston AW, Ross HS, Couzin DA, Stephen GS (1985-08-01). "A familial pericentric inversion of chromosome 22 with a recombinant subject illustrating a 'pure' partial monosomy syndrome". Journal of Medical Genetics. 22 (4): 283–287. doi:10.1136/jmg.22.4.283. ISSN 0022-2593. PMC 1049449. PMID 4045954.
  69. ^ Bonaglia MC, Giorda R, Borgatti R, Felisari G, Gagliardi C, Selicorni A, Zuffardi O (2001-08-01). "Disruption of the ProSAP2 gene in a t(12;22)(q24.1;q13.3) is associated with the 22q13.3 deletion syndrome". American Journal of Human Genetics. 69 (2): 261–268. doi:10.1086/321293. ISSN 0002-9297. PMC 1235301. PMID 11431708.
  70. ^ Anderlid BM, Schoumans J, Annerén G, Tapia-Paez I, Dumanski J, Blennow E, Nordenskjöld M (2002-05-01). "FISH-mapping of a 100-kb terminal 22q13 deletion". Human Genetics. 110 (5): 439–443. doi:10.1007/s00439-002-0713-7. ISSN 0340-6717. PMID 12073014. S2CID 6018914.
  71. ^ Wilson HL, Wong AC, Shaw SR, Tse WY, Stapleton GA, Phelan MC, Hu S, Marshall J, McDermid HE (2003-08-01). "Molecular characterisation of the 22q13 deletion syndrome supports the role of haploinsufficiency of SHANK3/PROSAP2 in the major neurological symptoms". Journal of Medical Genetics. 40 (8): 575–584. doi:10.1136/jmg.40.8.575. ISSN 1468-6244. PMC 1735560. PMID 12920066.
  72. ^ Wilson HL, Crolla JA, Walker D, Artifoni L, Dallapiccola B, Takano TC, Vasudevan P, Huang S, Maloney V, Yobb T, Quarrell O, McDermid HE (2008). "Interstitial 22q13 deletions: genes other than SHANK3 have major effects on cognitive and language development". European Journal of Human Genetics. 16 (11): 1301–1310. doi:10.1038/ejhg.2008.107. PMID 18523453.

References

[edit]
[edit]