Pseudomonas cichorii
| Pseudomonas cichorii | |
|---|---|
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| Pseudomonas cichorii causing hibiscus bacterial leaf spot | |
Scientific classification 
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| Domain: | Bacteria |
| Phylum: | Pseudomonadota |
| Class: | Gammaproteobacteria |
| Order: | Pseudomonadales |
| Family: | Pseudomonadaceae |
| Genus: | Pseudomonas |
| Species: | P. cichorii
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| Binomial name | |
| Pseudomonas cichorii | |
| Type strain | |
| ATCC 10857 CCUG 32776 | |
| Synonyms | |
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Pseudomonas cichorii is a Gram-negative soil bacterium that is pathogenic to plants. It has a wide host range, and can have an important economical impact on lettuce, celery and chrysanthemum crops.[3] P. cichorii was first isolated on endives (Cichorium endivia), from which it derives its name. It produces 6-aminopenicillanic acid.[4] Based on 16S rRNA analysis, P. cichorii has been placed in the P. syringae group.[5]
Hosts and symptoms
[edit]Pseudomonas cichorii is non-host specific as it does not infect just one host. Its host range includes lettuce, pepper, celery, coffee, wheat, basil and several other host plants.[6] Symptoms of the causal agent vary depending on the host and the area of the plant infected. In general, Pseudomonas cichorii is seen to cause leaf blighting and spotting. The first appearance of symptoms involves a water soaked lesion that develops at the edge of the leaf, midvein or randomly across the leaf.[7] These lesions progressively turn black or brown and may be surrounded by yellow halos. These lesions also often “coalesce and progress to severe leaf blight under favorable conditions for the bacterium.”[8] When the infected leaves become dry, the spots often look brittle and crack.
Disease cycle
[edit]Generally, Pseudomonas cichorii can only survive for short periods in soil, but colonies have been isolated following six months of burial in plant debris and soil.[9] For P. cichorii to divide and colonize after overwintering, conditions must be highly favorable. There must be an ideal temperature (20-28°C) and sufficient moisture.[10] In addition to overwintering in plant debris and soil, P. cichorii can be transmitted via seeds.[9] After favorable conditions allow colonization of the pathogen, it can spread via rain, splashing, wind, movement of debris, insects and of course, via human agricultural practices. P. cichorii is an epiphyte,[11] and can therefore survive on leaf surfaces until gaining entry into the host tissue. Entry into host tissue can be accomplished via wounds or natural openings such as stomata, epidermal hairs,[12] or hydathodes. If conditions are favorable upon entry into the host tissue, P. cichorii can multiply rapidly. Large populations of Pseudomonas are known to release an array of phytotoxins, and this is the cause of the observed spotting symptoms on the leaf.[13] After infection and asexual reproduction, P. cichorii can then spread to other leaves or plants. If the host plant dies or the leaf falls off, it may survive in this debris and repeat the disease cycle.[citation needed]
Environment
[edit]Pseudomonas cichorii grows in warm, wet and humid areas. It spreads by wind driven rain and survives and infects on wet leaf surfaces. The pathogen is often spread during sprinkler watering and overhead irrigation systems.[14] Plants growing outside exposed to rain exhibit dark brown to black spots on their leaf surface. When the plants are exposed to a limited amount of water and moisture, they exhibit sunken in lesions on both the upper and lower leaf surface. These different spots and lesion types often aid in the identification of P. cichorii. Free moisture on the leaves are known to promote disease development and plant infection.[15]
Pathogenesis
[edit]Little is known about the biochemical pathways of Pseudomonas cichorii, but linear lipoproteins are believed to contribute to virulence, motility, and biofilm formation.[16] Additionally, hrp genes of Pseudomonas cichorii have been found to affect pathogenicity of an eggplant host, but not a lettuce host.[17] These discoveries give an insight to potential phytotoxins and virulence factors, and also illustrate how large the knowledge gap is in our understanding of P. cichorii.[citation needed]
Management
[edit]To best prevent the spread of Pseudomonas cichorii the first intervention is to regulate the free water and watering system of leaves. Overhead sprinklers and hose watering should be replaced with soil irrigation. Soil irrigation is useful because it prevents excess water accumulation on plant surfaces by watering the plant from the root system. Soil irrigation also limits the ability of the seed structures to grow and infect leaf surfaces. A second intervention is watering earlier in the day.[18] Watering earlier in the day gives the leaves more time during the day to dry. A third intervention, is to minimize leaf splashing. This lessens the chance that the infected water will spread to another host. Sanitation is also important. Workers and those handling the infected leaves should wash their hands and keep infected plant material from uninfected areas. These infected cuttings and seedlings should not be planted or kept near uninfected fields as the pathogen is able to survive on the host's seeds.[19] The disease can be managed with copper or bactericidal products, but is not always successful in preventing disease spread when conditions are wet.[20]
Importance
[edit]The value of U.S. lettuce production was around $1.9 billion[21] in 2015, tomato production was valued at $821 million in 2018,[22] and celery production was valued at $314 million in 2017.[23] Pseudomonas cichorii can cause minimal[24] to complete loss of crop yield[25] in these species and many more.[26] The wide range of hosts and presence on every continent besides Antarctica[27] has contributed to its notoriety in many greenhouses and agricultural fields across the world. P. cichorii is present throughout the world, and historically has had significant impacts on a wide range of crops. Examples include the devastating varnish spot of lettuce in California,[28] brown stem of celery in Florida,[29] and the newly discovered leaf spot of tomato in New Zealand.[30]
References
[edit]- ^ SWINGLE, Deane Bret: Center rot of "french endive" or wilt of chicory (Cichorium intybos L.). Phytopathology, 1925, 15, 730
- ^ STAPP, Carl: Schizomycetes (Spaltpilze oder Bakterien). In: SORAUER (ed.), Handbuch der Pflanzenkrankheiten, 5th ed., Vol. 2, Paul Parey, Berlin, 1928, pp. 1-295.
- ^ Smith, Dunez, Lelliot, Phillips and Archer (1988) European Handbook of Plant Disease. Blackwell Scientific Publications.
- ^ Huang HT, English AR, Production of 6-aminopenicillanic acid. US Patent 3,239,427 dated March 8, 1966.
- ^ Anzai, Y; Kim, H; Park, J Y; Wakabayashi, H; Oyaizu, H (1 July 2000). "Phylogenetic affiliation of the pseudomonads based on 16S rRNA sequence". International Journal of Systematic and Evolutionary Microbiology. 50 (4): 1563–1589. doi:10.1099/00207713-50-4-1563. PMID 10939664.
- ^ Trantas, Emmanouil A.; Sarris, Panagiotis F.; Mpalantinaki, Evaggelia E.; Pentari, Marianna G.; Ververidis, Filippos N.; Goumas, Dimitrios E. (12 September 2013). "A new genomovar of Pseudomonas cichorii, a causal agent of tomato pith necrosis". European Journal of Plant Pathology. 137 (3): 477–493. Bibcode:2013EJPP..137..477T. doi:10.1007/s10658-013-0258-8. ISSN 0929-1873. S2CID 14333926.
- ^ "Pseudomonas cichorii (bacterial blight of endive)". PlantwisePlus Knowledge Bank. 9 October 2023. doi:10.1079/pwkb.species.44942. Retrieved 25 March 2024.
- ^ "Plant Disease Advisory: Bacterial leaf blight caused by Pseudomonas cichorii". Virginia Polytechnic Institute and State University. December 2015. Archived from the original on 19 July 2016. Retrieved 17 November 2016.
- ^ a b Ohata, K; Serizawa, S; Shirata, A (1982). "Infection source of the bacterial rot of lettuce caused by Pseudomonas cichorii". Bulletin of the National Institute of Agricultural Sciences, C (36): 75–80. Archived from the original on 31 October 2020.
- ^ Osdaghi, E (16 March 2020). "Pseudomonas cichorii (bacterial blight of endive)". CABI Compendium. doi:10.1079/cabicompendium.44942.
- ^ "Chrysanthemum – Bacterial leaf spot (Pseudomonas cichorii)". Center for Agriculture, Food and the Environment. 2018-03-06. Retrieved 6 December 2020.
- ^ Shirata, A; Ohata, K; Serizawa, S; Tsuchiya, Y (1982). "Relationship between the lesion development by Pseudomonas cichorii and growth stage and leaf position of lettuce and its infection mechanism". Bulletin of the National Institute of Agricultural Sciences, C (in Japanese) (36): 61–73.
- ^ Bender, Carol L.; Alarcón-Chaidez, Francisco; Gross, Dennis C. (June 1999). "Pseudomonas syringae Phytotoxins: Mode of Action, Regulation, and Biosynthesis by Peptide and Polyketide Synthetases". Microbiology and Molecular Biology Reviews. 63 (2): 266–292. doi:10.1128/MMBR.63.2.266-292.1999. ISSN 1092-2172. PMC 98966. PMID 10357851.
- ^ "UC IPM: Disease Control Outlines for Floriculture and Ornamental Nurseries: Geranium". ipm.ucanr.edu. Retrieved 2016-11-17.
- ^ "IPM: Reports on Plant Diseases: Bacterial Diseases of Geranium". ipm.illinois.edu. Retrieved 2016-11-17.
- ^ Pauwelyn, Ellen; Huang, Chien-Jui; Ongena, Marc; Leclère, Valérie; Jacques, Philippe; Bleyaert, Peter; Budzikiewicz, Herbert; Schäfer, Mathias; Höfte, Monica (May 2013). "New Linear Lipopeptides Produced by Pseudomonas cichorii SF1-54 Are Involved in Virulence, Swarming Motility, and Biofilm Formation". Molecular Plant-Microbe Interactions. 26 (5): 585–598. doi:10.1094/mpmi-11-12-0258-r. ISSN 0894-0282. PMID 23405865.
- ^ Hojo, Hiroshi; Koyanagi, Makoto; Tanaka, Masayuki; Kajihara, Shigeru; Ohnishi, Kouhei; Kiba, Akinori; Hikichi, Yasufumi (October 2008). "The hrp genes of Pseudomonas cichorii are essential for pathogenicity on eggplant but not on lettuce". Microbiology. 154 (Pt 10): 2920–2928. doi:10.1099/mic.0.2008/021097-0. ISSN 1350-0872. PMC 2885751. PMID 18832299.
- ^ "Chrysanthemum – Bacterial leaf spot (Pseudomonas cichorii)". negreenhouseupdate.info. Archived from the original on 18 November 2016. Retrieved 17 November 2016.
- ^ "Chrysanthemum Diseases (Plant Diseases)". Plant Diseases (Penn State Extension). Archived from the original on 4 July 2017. Retrieved 17 November 2016.
- ^ "Bacterial leaf blight caused by Pseudomonas cichorii". Virginia Tech. December 2015. Archived from the original on 20 June 2019. Retrieved 2019-06-20.
- ^ "Lettuce". Agricultural Marketing Resource Center. Retrieved 6 December 2020.
- ^ "Tomatoes: fresh market production value 2019". Statista. Retrieved 6 December 2020.
- ^ "Celery". Agricultural Marketing Resource Center. Retrieved 2020-12-06.
- ^ Holcomb, G. E.; Cox, P. J. (November 1998). "First Report of Basil Leaf Spot Caused by Pseudomonas cichorii in Louisiana and Cultivar Screening Results". Plant Disease. 82 (11): 1283. doi:10.1094/pdis.1998.82.11.1283d. ISSN 0191-2917. PMID 30845430.
- ^ Pauwelyn, Ellen; Vanhouteghem, Katrien; Cottyn, Bart; De Vos, Paul; Maes, Martine; Bleyaert, Peter; Höfte, Monica (2010-11-25). "Epidemiology of Pseudomonas cichorii, the Cause of Lettuce Midrib Rot". Journal of Phytopathology. 159 (4): 298–305. doi:10.1111/j.1439-0434.2010.01764.x. ISSN 0931-1785.
- ^ Silva Júnior, Tadeu Antônio Fernandes da; Gioria, Ricardo; Maringoni, Antonio Carlos; Azevedo, Sebastião M.; Beriam, Luís Otávio Saggion; Almeida, Irene Maria Gatti de (June 2009). "Host range and genotypes reaction to Pseudomonas cichorii". Summa Phytopathologica. 35 (2): 127–131. doi:10.1590/S0100-54052009000200008. hdl:11449/27705. ISSN 0100-5405.
- ^ Osdaghi, E (16 March 2020). "Pseudomonas cichorii (Bacterial blight of endive)". CABI Compendium. doi:10.1079/cabicompendium.44942.
- ^ "Phytopathology 1977 | Varnish Spot, Destructive Disease of Lettuce in California Caused by Pseudomonas cichorii". www.apsnet.org. Retrieved 2020-12-06.
- ^ Pernezny, Ken (1994). "Brown Stem of Celery Caused by Pseudomonas cichorii". Plant Disease. 78 (9): 917. doi:10.1094/PD-78-0917. ISSN 0191-2917.
- ^ Wilkie, J. Paula; Dye, D. W. (1974-05-01). "Pseudomonas cichorii causing tomato and celery diseases in New Zealand". New Zealand Journal of Agricultural Research. 17 (2): 123–130. Bibcode:1974NZJAR..17..123P. doi:10.1080/00288233.1974.10420990. ISSN 0028-8233.