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Disability and women's health

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Women with disabilities have the same health issues as any other women, such as the need for routine breast and cervical cancer screening.[1] However, women with impaired mobility are often not given basic tests, such as weight monitoring, due to the lack of accessible equipment.[2]

Article 12 of the United Nations Convention on the Elimination of All Forms of Discrimination against Women outlines women's protection from gender discrimination when receiving health services and women's entitlement to specific gender-related healthcare provisions.[3] Article 25 of the Convention on the Rights of Persons with Disabilities specifies that "persons with disabilities have the right to the enjoyment of the highest attainable standard of health without discrimination on the basis of disability."[4] However, it has been noted that the women with disabilities face obstacles and hardships and cannot access the same medical resources as those without.[5]

Because traditionally, men have been used to model and test health treatments, the approaches to health services, such as physical therapy, were not properly aligned with disabled women's needs.[6] It wasn't until after the 1990s that women's health issues were studied in-depth in the United States.[7] In addition, researching the health issues of women with disabilities is also understudied.[8] Starting in the early 2000s, health issues for people with disabilities began to be studied in the United States.[9] The first long-term study involving the experiences of women with disabilities and gynecological services was not published until 2001.[10]

Women with physical and or intellectual disabilities often face a medical bias within their communities. Factors can include unconscious bias, symptoms, negative perceptions, and even harsh assessments that can contribute to such discrimination.[11] Physicians can have gender bias in a diagnostic assessment of symptoms they cannot explain. As many before studying women's anatomy had thought prior that both men and women functioned the same way. As when doing assessments for both intellect and physical disabilities. They used the men's traits to correlate to symptoms for women. When in reality symptoms are shown differently.[12]

Women with disabilities, especially individuals who belong to minority groups or who live in rural settings, are often underserved in their healthcare needs.[13] In addition, women with disabilities are more likely to live in poverty, which puts them at a greater health risk.[7][14] In general, because of a lack of social connectedness that many disabled women experience, they often become disconnected from sources of support which can include healthcare providers.[15] In Brazil, women with disabilities are also less likely to seek out gynecological health care due to various reasons, including cultural attitudes and cost.[16]

When disabled women need routine services for anything other than their main impairment(s), they can be perceived as "problematic patients" by healthcare providers.[17] Women with disabilities have reported that they are seen through the lens of their disability first and as a person second by healthcare providers.[18] Conversely, a 2003 report found that not only did healthcare providers, in general, have positive attitudes toward people with physical disabilities in Saudi Arabia, regardless of gender, which cited that most healthcare professionals worldwide have positive attitudes.[19]

In countries with strict gender segregation, such as in Saudi Arabia, women must use women-only clinics, many of which do not have access for people with physical disabilities.[20]

Sexual health and contraception

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See also: Sexuality and disability

Contraceptives are used by women with intellectual disabilities for various reasons, including pregnancy prevention, menstrual suppression, and management of teratogenic medications.[21] Women with intellectual disabilities are more likely to use contraceptives or request a hysterectomy to manage menstruation.[22][23] Different types of contraception are available to women with disabilities, but the prescription of a specific type of birth control is based on the type of disability and the associated side-effects.[23]

Menstrual cycles are sometimes affected by different types of disabilities, such as rheumatoid arthritis.[23] In addition, women who become disabled later in life sometimes experience transient menstrual disorders.[23]

Healthcare professionals are less likely to refer women with disabilities for various gynecological screenings.[24] This could be due to the healthcare provider's unfamiliarity with disability or the assumption that women with disabilities are asexual in nature.[25] Women who have a spinal cord injury above the T6 vertebra can have autonomic dysreflexia during a pelvic exam which can be life-threatening.[26] Women with intellectual disabilities are less likely to receive Pap smears because the process may be upsetting to the patient.[27][28]

In the case that the examination table cannot be lowered during a Pap smear, women with physical disabilities can use alternative examination positions during the procedure, such as knee-chest position, diamond-shaped position, M-shaped position and V-shaped position.[29] These alternative procedures can accommodate women who are unable to position their feet into stirrups or need greater body support.[29] In addition, lithotomy stirrups can be used for additional comfort.[30] The Welner table, designed by American obstetrician-gynecologist and disability rights activist Sandra Welner, is an examination table designed with a wider range of adjustments and positions to facilitate accessibility for both patients and doctors with physical disabilities.[31] Welner also compiled the handbook, Welner's Guide to the care of women with disabilities.[32]

A study conducted in 1989 found that 19% of women with physical disabilities had been counseled on sexuality in a medical setting and were rarely offered information about contraceptives.[6] Women with intellectual disabilities often lack both education about sexual health and the ability to learn about it informally.[33] In addition, their medical providers are less likely to discuss contraception with them.[22] Women with intellectual disabilities can use supported decision-making with family members or other support persons to determine their preferred contraceptive option.[34]

In Zimbabwe, people with disabilities are often treated as second-class citizens. Women in Zimbabwe face increased barriers when accessing services for sexual health.[35] The National Reproductive Health Policy implemented in 2006 did not address the needs of women with disabilities.[36] Zimbabwean women with disabilities faced negative attitudes about their reproductive health, such as those of female nurses who expressed the idea that "sex was not meant for the disabled."[37]

Women with intellectual disabilities have been advised to become sterilized to possibly prevent sexual assault or because doctors may consider them unfit to become mothers.[38][39] In the United States, a 1927 Supreme Court case, Buck v. Bell, allowed the forced sterilization of women with intellectual disabilities.[40] In Singapore, the Voluntary Sterlisation Act (VSA) was passed in 1970 and which allowed any spouse, parent or guardian of persons who are "afflicted with any hereditary form of illness that is recurrent, mental illness, mental deficiency or epilepsy" to consent to the sterilization on their behalf.[41] In Brazil, many healthcare providers and individuals with disabilities both see sterilization as the only option for contraception.[24]

Maternity care

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Some studies have highlighted potential obstacles for pregnant women with disability. For example, a 1996 study discovered that over 50% of United States hospitals lacked the necessary infrastructure to cater to the needs of physically disabled pregnant women, which rendered their facilities inaccessible.[42] These barriers may include lack of adjustable examination tables, wheelchair compatible features, and accessible weight scales.[43]

A study published in the Journal of Applied Research in Intellectual Disabilities demonstrated that pregnant women and mothers with intellectual disabilities benefit from the inclusion of a doula both before and after they gave birth.[44] This approach contrasts with "crisis driven" services that are more often given to parents who have intellectual disabilities.[45] Participants in one small study felt that they gained a trusting relationship with their doulas and that helped them stay calm both during labor and after.[46] Additionally, the women felt that they were able to make better, more informed choices about their own care because of the information and support they received from their doulas.[46]

Expectant mothers with intellectual disabilities may need more specialized training and guidance in regards to childcare after they give birth.[47] Important themes in training may include consistent formal obstetric training and education for both providers and mothers.[47]

Breast health

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Many women with a disability do not regularly receive or are not regularly referred for breast cancer screenings.[48] Women with some physical disabilities may need to be referred to special mammography centers because most equipment is not designed to accommodate women who are unable to stand.[23][49] Some women with disabilities may be unable to receive breast cancer screening due to financial concerns.[49] Clinical depression is also a complication involved in whether or not women with disabilities get annual mammograms.[50] There is also potential concern that ionizing radiation applied to the spine too early on in life may cause an increased risk of developing breast cancer.[23] This is of particular concern for those women and girls who experienced disabilities relating to the spine from a young age.[23]

Later life

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Standards of successful aging may be different for those experiencing disabilities and they may require additional support as they age.[51] Older women are more likely to be disabled than younger women.[23] The most common disability affecting elderly women worldwide is osteoarthritis.[52] Older women who have disabilities that affect their mobility are at risk of losing contact with their communities and may experience degraded life outcomes associated as a result.[53]

Women with physical disabilities are at a greater risk of having lower bone mass and are at risk for osteoporosis.[54] Women with ID and Down syndrome often go through menopause at an earlier age than other women.[55] Women with various disabilities sometimes show different symptoms from decreased estrogen levels during menopause.[23]

Loss of estrogen after menopause can also lead to a greater likelihood of urinary incontinence[23] Treatment and therapy interventions for incontinence have not been tested or modified for women with disabilities.[56]

See also

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References

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Citations

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  1. ^ "Women's Health". UCP. 2015-07-31. Archived from the original on 2017-06-28. Retrieved 2017-07-29.
  2. ^ Lehman 2009, p. 191.
  3. ^ Convention on the Elimination of All Forms of Discrimination against Women. New York: United Nations. 1979.
  4. ^ "Article 25 - Health | United Nations Enable". www.un.org. Retrieved 20 October 2017.
  5. ^ Gibson, Barbara E.; Mykitiuk, Roxanne (2012). "Health Care Access and Support for Disabled Women in Canada: Falling Short of the UN Convention on the Rights of Persons with Disabilities: A Qualitative Study". Women's Health Issues. 22 (1): e111–e118. doi:10.1016/j.whi.2011.07.011. PMID 21968028.
  6. ^ a b Nosek & Hughes 2003, p. 225.
  7. ^ a b Parish & Ellison-Martin 2007, p. 109.
  8. ^ Parish & Ellison-Martin 2007, p. 110-111.
  9. ^ Wisdom et al. 2010, p. 369.
  10. ^ Kaplan 2006, p. 450-451.
  11. ^ https://caccl-glendale.primo.exlibrisgroup.com/permalink/01CACCL_GLENDALE/fomh76/cdi_proquest_journals_2504562174 [bare URL]
  12. ^ Claréus, Benjamin; Renström, Emma A. (August 2019). "Physicians' gender bias in the diagnostic assessment of medically unexplained symptoms and its effect on patient–physician relations". Scandinavian Journal of Psychology. 60 (4): 338–347. doi:10.1111/sjop.12545. PMC 6851885. PMID 31124165.
  13. ^ Lin et al. 2011, p. 149.
  14. ^ Nosek & Hughes 2003, p. 228.
  15. ^ Nosek & Hughes 2003, p. 228-229.
  16. ^ Carvalho, Brito & Medeiros 2014, p. 115.
  17. ^ Thomas 2001, p. 247.
  18. ^ Thomas 2001, p. 252.
  19. ^ Al-Abdulwahab & Al-Gain 2003, p. 67.
  20. ^ Aldosari 2017, p. 11.
  21. ^ Committee on Adolescence (29 September 2014). "Contraception for Adolescents". Pediatrics. 134 (4): e1244–e1256. doi:10.1542/peds.2014-2299. PMC 1070796. PMID 25266430.
  22. ^ a b Greenwood & Wilkinson 2013, p. 3.
  23. ^ a b c d e f g h i j Welner, Sandra L.; Hammond, Cassing (2009). "Gynecologic and Obstetric Issues Confronting Women with Disabilities". The Global Library of Women's Medicine. doi:10.3843/GLOWM.10076.
  24. ^ a b Carvalho, Brito & Medeiros 2014, p. 116.
  25. ^ Kaplan 2006, p. 450.
  26. ^ Kaplan 2006, p. 453.
  27. ^ Greenwood & Wilkinson 2013, p. 5.
  28. ^ Drew & Short 2010, p. 262.
  29. ^ a b Kaplan 2006, p. 451.
  30. ^ Kaplan 2006, p. 452.
  31. ^ Waldman, Hilary (1998-03-03). "New Equipment, New Outlook". Hartford Courant.
  32. ^ Sandra L. Welner; Florence Haseltine, eds. (2004). Welner's Guide to the care of women with disabilities. Philadelphia: Lippincott Williams & Wilkins. ISBN 978-0781735322.
  33. ^ Greenwood & Wilkinson 2013, p. 2.
  34. ^ Kripke, Clarissa (2016-07-18). "Supported health care decision-making for people with intellectual and cognitive disabilities". Family Practice. 33 (5): 445–446. doi:10.1093/fampra/cmw060. PMID 27432358.
  35. ^ Rugoho & Maphosa 2017, p. 2.
  36. ^ Rugoho & Maphosa 2017, p. 3.
  37. ^ Rugoho & Maphosa 2017, p. 4.
  38. ^ Napier, Stephen (2010). "Contraception for the Mentally Disabled: A Contraceptive Act?". The Linacre Quarterly. 77 (3): 280–307. doi:10.1179/002436310803888745. ISSN 0024-3639. S2CID 144316686.
  39. ^ Thomas 2001, p. 255.
  40. ^ Wills, Matthew (2017-08-03). "When Forced Sterilization was Legal in the U.S." JSTOR Daily. Retrieved 2017-08-03.
  41. ^ Wong, Meng Ee; Ng, Ian; Lor, Jean; Wong, Reuben (2017). "Navigating Through the 'Rules' of Civil Society: In Search of Disability Rights in Singapore". In Song, Jiyoung (ed.). A History of Human Rights Society in Singapore: 1965-2015. New York: Routledge. p. 173. ISBN 9781315527406.
  42. ^ Lehman 2009, p. 186.
  43. ^ Lisa, Lezzono; Wint, Amy; C. Smeltzer, Suzanne; L. Ecker, Jeffrey (December 1, 2015). "Physical Accessibility of Routine Prenatal Care for Women with Mobility Disability". Journal of Women's Health (2002). 24 (12): 1006–1012. doi:10.1089/jwh.2015.5385. PMC 4683562. PMID 26484689.
  44. ^ McGarry, Kroese & Cox 2016, p. 32.
  45. ^ McGarry, Kroese & Cox 2016, p. 31.
  46. ^ a b McGarry, Kroese & Cox 2016, p. 29.
  47. ^ a b Amir, Nili; Smith, Lauren D.; Valentine, Anne M.; Mitra, Monika; Parish, Susan L.; Moore Simas, Tiffany A. (2022-04-01). "Clinician perspectives on the need for training on caring for pregnant women with intellectual and developmental disabilities". Disability and Health Journal. 15 (2): 101262. doi:10.1016/j.dhjo.2021.101262. ISSN 1936-6574. PMC 8983509. PMID 35031269.
  48. ^ Todd & Stuifbergen 2012, p. 74.
  49. ^ a b Todd & Stuifbergen 2012, p. 75.
  50. ^ Todd & Stuifbergen 2012, p. 76.
  51. ^ Molton, Ivan R.; Yorkston, Kathryn M. (4 October 2016). "Growing Older With a Physical Disability: A Special Application of the Successful Aging Paradigm: Table 1". The Journals of Gerontology Series B: Psychological Sciences and Social Sciences. 72 (2): 290–299. doi:10.1093/geronb/gbw122. PMID 27702838.
  52. ^ Mohamed 2013, p. 408.
  53. ^ Mohamed 2013, p. 414.
  54. ^ Dormire & Becker 2007, p. 98.
  55. ^ Chou, Lu & Pu 2013, p. 114-115.
  56. ^ Dormire & Becker 2007, p. 100.

Sources

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