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Minembwe

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Coordinates: 3°56′3.91″S 28°43′48.22″E / 3.9344194°S 28.7300611°E / -3.9344194; 28.7300611
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Minembwe
Aerial view of Eben-Ezer University of Minembwe
Aerial view of Eben-Ezer University of Minembwe
Country DR Congo
ProvinceSouth Kivu
TerritoryFizi
SectorLulenge
GroupingBasimukuma Sud
Time zoneUTC+2 (CAT)

Minembwe is a cluster of several villages located in the highlands of Lulenge, within the Fizi Territory of South Kivu Province in the Democratic Republic of the Congo (DRC). It is situated at an altitude of about 2,500 meters above sea level, in a hilly and mountainous region covered with forests, which provides fertile land for agriculture. It lies approximately 150 kilometers southward of Bukavu. The region is interspersed with myriad streams and rivers that flow towards Lake Tanganyika, the second-deepest lake in the world.[1]

Historically, Minembwe was predominantly settled by the Bembe and Buyu peoples;[2] however, the region is renowned for its profound ethnocultural diversity, serving as a nexus for myriad ethnicities such as the Banyamulenge, Bafuliiru, Banyindu, Bamushi, Baholoholo, Babwari, Bavira, Balega, Bahunde, Banyanga, Bashu, Baamba, and Baswaga. Kibembe prevails as the lingua franca, with Swahili and Kinyarwanda also in widespread use, though numerous minority groups continue to converse in their indigenous languages.[3][4][5]

History

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Early history and ethnic tensions

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Traditionally, the Babembe people predominantly inhabited Minembwe, which functioned as a hub for trade, commerce, and cultural exchange, with people from various ethnic groups converging in the region.[2][5][6][7] During the Belgian colonial era, the Bembe and Buyu communities were integrated into the Fizi Territory, which was subsequently segmented into five divisions: Itombwe, Lulenge, Mutambala, Ngandja, and Tangani'a. However, post-decolonization, the Itombwe sector was realigned closer to the Mwenga Territory to facilitate more immediate administrative oversight for the indigenous populace.[8][9]

During the 1920s, swathes of the South and North Kivu's territories were adjudged sparsely populated, prompting the Belgian colonial administrators to enlist labor from extraneous locales to foster regional development. This incitement culminated in the relocation of Banyarwanda to the Kivu highlands from the late 1930s through the 1950s.[10][7][11][12][13] This demographic shift engendered profound sociocultural ramifications within the region, particularly in Minembwe. Nevertheless, the assimilation process was fraught with discord. Ethnic antagonisms erupted between the Banyamulenge and other indigenous ethnic communities, notably the Babembe, exacerbated by land disputes, resource competition, and politico-strategic rivalries.[14] In the late 1950s, there was a significant influx of Banyarwanda immigrants into the Fizi Territory, particularly in the Lulenge sector. This migration was fueled by political instability in Rwanda and the search for better economic opportunities in neighboring areas.[15][16] Parenthetically, during the Rwandan Revolution of 1959–1961, the UN High Commissioner for Refugees (UNHCR) settled Rwandan refugees in the sites of Lemera, Mulenge, and Katobo. Many of these refugees ended up dispersing throughout the Lulenge sector and settling in some of the most remote and inaccessible areas of the South and North Kivu regions.[17]

Mobutu Sese Seko sporting a typical abacost in 1983

The Banyarwanda who settled in Lulenge from the late 1950s to the 1980s, alongside earlier migrants to the eastern Congo Free State in the nineteenth century, collectively known as "Banyamulenge," aspired to establish their own self-governing territory like other ethnic groups. However, they were required to meet criteria set by the Belgian colonial authorities and later upheld by the Congolese state post-independence to be recognized as a distinct ethnic group. These criteria included possessing a native language, a chieftainship to represent the tribe, and a well-defined territory acknowledged by neighboring tribes. Despite their mother tongue being Kinyarwanda, the Banyarwanda lacked both a chieftainship and a defined territory, which disqualified them from being recognized as a Congolese tribe.[18][19][20][21] The designation "Banyamulenge" was not documented in colonial records. Throughout history, "Banyamulenge" were predominantly recognized as "Banyarwanda," denoting their status as migrant with Rwanda origins. It wasn't until the early 1970s that the categorization of Banyamulenge as immigrants from Rwanda ceased during the Mobutu Sese Seko administration.[1][22]

1972 Ordinance, land acquisitions and identity crisis

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In 1972, Barthélémy Bisengimana Rwema, a Tutsi cabinet director under Mobutu during his second republic, promulgated a presidential "Ordinance № 69-096," which collectively granted Zairean nationality to all Banyarwanda.[23] In the same year, Banyarwanda changed their eponym from "Banyarwanda" to "Banyamulenge" to distinguish themselves from recent immigrants from Rwanda.[24] However, this legislation equated both long-settled Banyarwanda populations entitled to Zairean citizenship and recent immigrants, which caused bewilderment among the affected communities. The broad acquisition of Congolese nationality, combined with the land legislation enacted under Zairianisation, enabled influential Tutsis to acquire land, particularly former colonial plantations redistributed by the state. These acquisitions legalized the Tutsi peasantry's settlements in the Kivu region, granting them recognized status.[23] The inability to apply the 1972 Ordinance, due to not meeting the basic criteria, exacerbated tensions and conflicts in the region, with other Congolese tribes perceiving themselves as expropriated by Tutsis.[23][25] These ethnic tensions threatened national integrity, prompting Congolese political authorities to repeal the "1972 Ordinance" through Law no. 81/002 of June 29, 1981, and, thus, to correct the law regarding the recognition of ethnic communities.[23] Nonetheless, the identity crisis between Banyamulenge and other Congolese tribes was evident, as civil status offices were frequently torched to destroy documents necessary for granting nationality or land to Banyamulenge.

Tensions resurface (1991-1999)

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Between 1991 and 1993, ethnic tensions erupted violently during Kivu's representation at the National Sovereign Conference (Conférence Nationale Souveraine) in Kinshasa, aimed at establishing a democratic regime in Zaire. This led to the formation of youth militias initiating attacks and murders in Kivu, but were subsequently halted following the intervention of the Special Presidential Division to restore some semblance of order.[26][27] At the onset of the Second Congo War, the Banyamulenge allied with Rwandan Tutsi refugees dispersed across Kivu to combat discriminatory nationality and land laws.[28] They aligned with the Rwandan Patriotic Front (RPF) and later with the Alliance of Democratic Forces for the Liberation of Congo (ADFL) and the Rally for Congolese Democracy (RCD).[29][30][28] Following Mobutu's ousting, the RCD, a Rwandan-backed rebel faction led by Azarias Ruberwa, established Minembwe as an independent Tutsi region in 1999, alongside Bunyakiri in Kalehe Territory.[31][30][32]

Ongoing ethnic tensions (2006–present)

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The recognition of these two territorial entities instigated ethnic tensions within the transitional government in 2006.[33][34] The Banyamulenge, having supported AFDL and RCD forces during the Second Congo War, were accused of attacking refugee camps and densely populated villages, committing civilian executions, and engaging in terrorism against Zairean civilians across South and North Kivu, including Bwegera, Luberizi, Luvungi, Katala, Rubenga, Lubarika, Kakumbukumbu, Mutarule, Kagunga, Kiliba, Ndunda, Biriba, Sange, Rwenena, Kahororo, Kamanyola, Lemera, Kidote, Makobola, Kasika, Kilungutwe, Kilungutwe River and Katogota. Consequently, many Congolese perceived the Banyamulenge as invaders encroaching upon their habitats.[35][36][30] Conversely, those on the Banyamulenge side argue that they were not given adequate space within the Fizi Territory and are therefore fighting for self-defense. This conflict resulted in the displacement of approximately 140,000 people in May 2019 due to armed skirmishes in Minembwe.[37][36][38]

Declaration of Minembwe as commune

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MONUSCO helicopter transporting rations to the 12th Brigade troops stationed in Minembwe
Members of MONUSCO's Pakistani Battalion assisting in the extraction of a truck stuck in marshland on a main road in Minembwe

In September 2020, Minembwe was designated a rural commune, despite opposition from other ethnic groups who contended that proper legal and administrative procedures were bypassed. The installment of Minembwe as a rural commune and the appointment of Gad Mukiza, a Tutsi, as mayor on September 28, 2020, sparked significant controversy and opposition from other Congolese tribes who assert territorial claims.[39][40][36][41] Many Congolese perceived the declaration of Minembwe as a rural commune as a stratagem for the Banyamulenge to consolidate control over the region. Some critics contended that the move was made under pressure from neighboring countries, particularly Rwanda, long accused of supporting the Banyamulenge.[1]

On October 8, 2020, the initiative to create Minembwe as a rural commune was annulled following a declaration by President Félix Tshisekedi, citing irregularities and aiming to mitigate tensions.[42] Félix Tshisekedi stated:[43]

"For me, the salvation of the people is the supreme law. I cannot leave my people in danger. I have decided to cancel what has been done so far for Minembwe."

This annulment was met with approval from various groups, including opposition parties and civil society organizations.[44][1] However, it elicited mixed reactions from the Banyamulenge, who viewed it as an infringement on their rights and a reversal of the progress made in their struggle for recognition and self-determination. Some Banyamulenge leaders and activists accused the government of capitulating to pressure from other ethnic groups and reneging on its promises to safeguard their interests and foster their development.[45][39] The situation in Minembwe remains volatile, with reports of violence and displacement. In October 2020, the United Nations reported that at least 15 people had been killed and dozens injured in clashes between the Banyamulenge and other groups in the area. The UN also estimated that over 50,000 people had been displaced by the violence.[46][47]

Displaced families seeking refuge in the Minembwe highlands.

On July 20, 2021, Twiganeho militiamen and their allies attacked the Musika village, located in the southern Basimunyaka groupement in Lulenge.[48] According to several testimonies, fifteen homes of civilians were incinerated, compelling civilian members of the local community to relocate to Runundu and Ilundu villages. Other members of the local communities were also affected and migrated towards the villages of Lumanya and Kwamulima.[48] Two elderly men were immolated in their residence, children were separated from their parents, and a hundred cattle were abducted, according to witnesses in the area.[48] In May 2022, clashes between Ngumino and Mai-Mai Biloze Bishambuke and their allies resulted in nearly five fatalities in Irumba and Ngandura, villages situated 15 kilometers from Minembwe.[49] In July 2022, four civilians were slain in Minembwe by Twiganeho, an insurgent group led by an army deserter Colonel Michel Rukunda, after refusing to join the forced recruitment.[50] In August 2022, dozens of civilians and police officers were taken hostage by Twiganeho in the Minembwe highlands.[50] On January 4, 2023, the Deputy Chief of Staff of the Armed Forces of the Democratic Republic of the Congo in charge of operations, Chico Tshitambwe, called on the population of Minembwe to dissociate themselves from armed groups. Tshitambwe also invited the militias to lay down their arms and join the PDDRC-S program.[51]

Development opportunities

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Being an area built on hills and without subsurface wealth, Minembwe does not present strong development possibilities except for its location as a riparian region which gives it agriculture and fishing development.[52][53] Lake Tanganyika, situated in the eastern part of the region, offers tremendous fishing potential for Minembwe. Despite strong agricultural and fisheries development, Minembwe has suffered from a lack of improvements in health, access to clean water, lack of roads, and basic civic services.[54]

References

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  1. ^ a b c d "Pourquoi Minembwe est symbolique pour certains Congolais" [Minembwe: why the Congolese forced Tshisekedi to suspend the erection of a commune]. BBC News Afrique (in French). October 13, 2020. Retrieved 7 May 2023.
  2. ^ a b Muchukiwa, Bosco (2004). Pouvoirs locaux et contestations populaires dans le territoire d'UVIRA au Sud Kivu de 1961 à 2004 (in French). Institut de Politique et de Gestion du Développent, Anvers. pp. 19–21.{{cite book}}: CS1 maint: location missing publisher (link)
  3. ^ "Fizi Itombwe – Fizi ou territoire de babembe". Retrieved 2023-03-12.
  4. ^ Martin, Guy (2009). "The Dynamics of Violence in Central Africa. René LemarchandAfrica's World War: Congo, the Rwandan Genocide, and the Making of a Continental Catastrophe. Gerard Prunier". Africa Today. 56 (2): 92–97. doi:10.2979/aft.2009.56.2.92. ISSN 0001-9887. JSTOR 10.2979/aft.2009.56.2.92.
  5. ^ a b Jean-Luc Vellut, Wilungula B. Cosma (1997). "Fizi 1967 - 1986: Le Maquis Kabila" (PDF). Institut Africain CEDAF. Retrieved 2023-03-11.
  6. ^ Jean-Luc Vellut, Wilungula B. Cosma (1997). "Fizi 1967-1986: le maquis Kabila" (PDF). Institut Africain CEDAF. Retrieved 2023-03-11.
  7. ^ a b Moeller, Alfred (1936). "Les grandes lignes des migrations des Bantus de la province orientale du Congo belge" [The main lines of the migrations of the Bantu from the eastern province of the Belgian Congo] (PDF) (in French). Retrieved March 11, 2023.
  8. ^ Muchukiwa, Bosco (2004). Pouvoirs locaux et contestations populaires dans le territoire d'UVIRA au Sud Kivu de 1961 à 2004 (in French). Institut de Politique et de Gestion du Développent, Anvers. pp. 19–21.{{cite book}}: CS1 maint: location missing publisher (link)
  9. ^ Muchukiwa, Bosco (2016). Identités territoriales et conflits dans la province du Sud-Kivu, R. D. Congo (PDF) (in French). Geneva, Switzerland: Globethics.net. pp. 14–18. ISBN 978-2-88931-112-5.
  10. ^ Commission pour l'Étude du problème de la main-d'oeuvre au Congo Belge (1929). Rapport du Sous-Comité de la Province Orientale du Comité Consultatif de la main-d'oeuvre (in French). Belgium. pp. 257–265.{{cite book}}: CS1 maint: location missing publisher (link)
  11. ^ Cosma, Wilungula B.; Vellut, Jean-Luc (1997). "Fizi 1967 - 1986: Le Maquis Kabila" (PDF). Institut Africain CEDAF (in French). Retrieved 2023-03-16.
  12. ^ Official Records of the ... Session of the General Assembly Supplement: Issues 12-16. Iowa City, Iowa, United States: University of Iowa. 1978. p. 30.
  13. ^ Verweijen, Judith; Twaibu, Juvénal; Ribakare, Moïse; Bulamba, Paul; Kasongo, Freddy Mwambi (April 2021). "Mayhem In The Mountains: How Violent Conflict on The Hauts Pleateux of South Kivu Escalated" (PDF). whiterose.ac.uk/. p. 16. Retrieved 2023-04-18.
  14. ^ Spitaels, R (1953). Transplantation de Banyarwanda au Kivu", Problèmes d'Afrique Centrale (in French). Brussels, Belgium. p. 110.{{cite book}}: CS1 maint: location missing publisher (link)
  15. ^ Ndeshio Rurihose, O. (June 1992). La nationalité de la population zaïroise d'expression kinyarwanda au regard de la loi du 26 June 1991 (in French). Kinshasa, Democratic Republic of the Congo. pp. 9–15.{{cite book}}: CS1 maint: location missing publisher (link)
  16. ^ Cahiers Africains, Issues 26-30 (in French). Brussels, Belgium: Centre d'Étude et de Documentation Africains (CEDAF). 1997. pp. 26–118. ISBN 978-2-7384-5961-9.
  17. ^ Mararo, Bucyalimwe (1997). "Land, Power, and Ethnic Conflict in Masisi (Congo-Kinshasa), 1940s-1994". The International Journal of African Historical Studies. 30 (3): 503–538. doi:10.2307/220574. ISSN 0361-7882. JSTOR 220574.
  18. ^ Heyse, T. (January 1938). "Concentration et Déconcentration au Congo Belge". Progress in Public Administration. 11 (4): 611–624. doi:10.1177/002085233801100401. ISSN 0552-3060. S2CID 189496214.
  19. ^ de Laddersous, Alfred Moeller (1927). De certaines formes de participation des indigènes à l'administration de notre colonie (in French). pp. 262–266.
  20. ^ Gana, Aaron Tsado (2003). Federalism in Africa, Volume 2. Trenton, New Jersey: Africa World Press. pp. 18–19. ISBN 9781592210800.
  21. ^ Ngbanda, Honoré (August 23, 2019). "The truth about the war in Minembwe" (PDF). APARECO. Paris, France. pp. 6–9. Retrieved June 15, 2024.
  22. ^ Lemarchand, René (May 1999). "Ethnicity as Myth: The View from the Central Africa" (PDF). Centre of African studies, University of Copenhagen. Denmark. p. 15. Retrieved 2023-03-11.
  23. ^ a b c d Nzongola-Ntalaja, Georges (May 19, 2004). "The Politics of Citizenship in the DRC" (PDF). Centre of African Studies, University of Edinburgh. pp. 5–6. Archived from the original (PDF) on 2011-05-24. Retrieved 2023-03-11.
  24. ^ Lemarchand, René (May 1999). "Ethnicity as Myth: The View from the Central Africa" (PDF). Centre of African Studies, University of Copenhagen. p. 16. Retrieved 2023-03-11.
  25. ^ Court, Anthony (2013-12-01). "The Banyamulenge of South Kivu: The 'Nationality Question'". African Studies. 72 (3): 416–439. doi:10.1080/00020184.2013.851467. ISSN 0002-0184. S2CID 145440232.
  26. ^ Gerard-Libois, Jules; Verhaegen, Benoit (2015-12-08). Congo 1964. Princeton University Press. ISBN 978-0-691-62419-8.
  27. ^ "Report of the Mapping Exercise documenting the most serious violations of human rights and international humanitarian law committed within the territory of the Democratic Republic of the Congo between March 1993 and June 2003" (PDF). August 2010. p. 70 (156). Retrieved 2012-04-05.
  28. ^ a b Kisangani, Emizet F. (2003). "Conflict in the Democratic Republic of Congo: A Mosaic of Insurgent Groups". International Journal on World Peace. 20 (3): 51–80. ISSN 0742-3640. JSTOR 20753410.
  29. ^ "When Fighting Becomes an End in Itself: Conflict in the Democratic Republic of Congo". www.international.ucla.edu. Retrieved 2023-03-13.
  30. ^ a b c "III. Background". Hrw.org. New York City, New York State, United States: Human Rights Watch. 2002. Retrieved 13 March 2023.
  31. ^ "Pourquoi Minembwe est symbolique pour certains Congolais". BBC News Afrique (in French). Retrieved 2023-03-13.
  32. ^ "Erection de Minembwe en commune : Il y a". www.mediacongo.net. Retrieved 2023-03-13.
  33. ^ Tshiambi, Albert (20 February 2006). "L'érection de Minembwe en "territoire" suscite des mécontentements" (in French). Le Potentiel. Archived from the original on 11 March 2007. Retrieved 2008-11-02.
  34. ^ The UN and Kabila Illegally endorse Minembwe Archived 2008-10-10 at the Wayback Machine, La Conscience
  35. ^ "Report of the Mapping Exercise documenting the most serious violations of human rights and international humanitarian law committed within the territory of the Democratic Republic of the Congo between March 1993 and June 2003" (PDF). August 2010. pp. 91–95. Retrieved 2023-04-06.
  36. ^ a b c Rigaud, Christophe (October 7, 2020). "RDC: Minembwe, la commune de la discorde" [DRC: Minembwe, the commune of discord]. Afrikarabia.com (in French). Retrieved 15 June 2024.
  37. ^ Rigaud, Christophe (October 20, 2020). "Minembwe: les clés pour comprendre la controverse" [Minembwe: the keys to understanding the controversy]. Afrikarabia.com (in French). Retrieved 15 June 2024.
  38. ^ Bashi, Wendy (June 24, 2019). "RDC: dégradation de la situation sécuritaire à Minembwe" [DRC: deterioration of the security situation in Minembwe]. Dw.com (in French). Retrieved March 12, 2023.
  39. ^ a b Verweijen, Judith (November 2, 2020). "DRC: Opportunistic use of 'balkanisation' theory in Minembwe". The Africa Report.com. Retrieved May 7, 2023.
  40. ^ Jojo, Joram (October 17, 2020). "The establishment of Minembwe as a commune In South Kivu". Joram Jojo Multimedia. Retrieved May 7, 2023.
  41. ^ Mulongo, Freddy (4 October 2020). "De l'occupation à la balkanisation: Minembwe est vendu aux occupants par Tshilombo!" [From occupation to balkanization: Minembwe is sold to the occupiers by Tshilombo!]. Mediapart (in French). Paris, France. Retrieved March 13, 2023.
  42. ^ "RDC: Felix Tshisekedi annule le processus de création de la commune de Minembwe" [DRC: Felix Tshisekedi cancels the process of creating the commune of Minembwe]. Radio Okapi (in French). October 8, 2020. Retrieved March 13, 2023.
  43. ^ "RDC: Felix Tshisekedi annonce l'annulation du processus de création de la commune de Minembwe" [DRC: Felix Tshisekedi announces the cancellation of the process of creating the commune of Minembwe]. Leregard.info (in French). October 9, 2020. Retrieved March 13, 2023.
  44. ^ Isango, Eddie (9 October 2020). "Tshisekedi annule le décret élevant Minembwe en commune rurale" [Tshisekedi cancels the decree elevating Minembwe to a rural commune]. VOA (in French). Retrieved March 13, 2023.
  45. ^ "Minembwe Archives". Kivu Security Blog. Retrieved 2023-05-07.
  46. ^ "Human rights in Democratic Republic of the Congo". Amnesty International. Retrieved 2023-05-07.
  47. ^ "UNICEF Democratic Republic of the Congo Humanitarian Situation Report No. 8 - August 2020 - Democratic Republic of the Congo | ReliefWeb". reliefweb.int. 10 December 2020. Retrieved 2023-05-07.
  48. ^ a b c "Uvira: des affrontements entre groupes armés s'intensifient dans les hauts plateaux de Minembwe et Fizi" [Uvira: clashes between armed groups intensify in the highlands of Minembwe and Fizi]. Radio Okapi (in French). July 21, 2021. Retrieved March 12, 2023.
  49. ^ "Sud-Kivu: accalmie après combats entre deux groupes armés à Fizi" [South Kivu: lull after fighting between two armed groups in Fizi]. Radio Okapi (in French). May 2, 2022. Retrieved March 12, 2023.
  50. ^ a b "Sud-Kivu: des policiers et civils pris en otage par un groupe armé à Minembwe" [South Kivu: police officers and civilians taken hostage by an armed group in Minembwe]. Radio Okapi (in French). August 5, 2022. Retrieved March 12, 2023.
  51. ^ "Sud-Kivu: l'armée appelle la population de Minembwe à se désolidariser des groupes armés" [South Kivu: the army calls on the population of Minembwe to dissociate themselves from armed groups]. Radio Okapi (in French). January 5, 2023. Retrieved March 13, 2023.
  52. ^ "Democratic Republic of the Congo: economic support for isolated residents of South Kivu - ICRC". www.icrc.org. 2010-02-10. Retrieved 2023-04-06.
  53. ^ Chuma, Géant Basimine; Cirezi, Nadège Cizungu; Mondo, Jean Mubalama; Mugumaarhahama, Yannick; Ganza, Deckas Mushamalirwa; Katcho, Karume; Mushagalusa, Gustave Nachigera; Schmitz, Serge (2021-12-01). "Suitability for agroforestry implementation around Itombwe Natural Reserve (RNI), eastern DR Congo: Application of the Analytical Hierarchy Process (AHP) approach in geographic information system tool". Trees, Forests and People. 6: 100125. doi:10.1016/j.tfp.2021.100125. ISSN 2666-7193.
  54. ^ "Normal start to growing season A in eastern DRC supported by near average rainfall | FEWS NET". fews.net. Retrieved 2023-04-06.

3°56′3.91″S 28°43′48.22″E / 3.9344194°S 28.7300611°E / -3.9344194; 28.7300611

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