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References

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  1. ^ Cassidy, David; Holton, Gerald; Rutherford, James (2002). "13. Probing the Atom". Understanding Physics. Springer-Verlag New York, Inc. p. 598. ISBN 0-387-98756-8. Later work showed that all substances (solids, liquids, and gases) exhibit the photoelectric effect under appropriate conditions. However, it is more convenient to study the effect with metallic surfaces.
  2. ^ Arora, C. L. (2013). "38. Photoelectric Effect". B.Sc. Practical Physics (21st ed.). Ram Nagar, New Delhi, India: S. Chand Publishing. p. 393. ISBN 81-219-0909-0. Alkali metals like sodium, potassium, and cesium emit electrons even when visible light falls on them, whereas zinc, cadmium, etc. are sensitive only to ultra-violet light.
  3. ^ Asimov, Isaac (1966). "4. Electrons Within Atoms". Understanding Physics (Volume III): The Electron, Proton, and Neutron. United States: New American Library. p. 54. ISBN 978-0451626349. When Hertz was experimenting with radio waves during the 1800s, he found that he could elicit a spark from his radio-wave detector more easily if light fell upon the metal points giving out the spark.
  4. ^ Wheaton, Bruce R. (1978). "Philipp Lenard and the Photoelectric Effect, 1889-1911". Historical Studies in the Physical Sciences. 9: 299–322. doi:10.2307/27757381. ISSN 0073-2672. Philipp Lenard discovered in 1902 that the maximum velocity with which electrons leave a metal plate after it is illuminated with ultra violet light is independent of the intensity of the light.
  5. ^ "The Nobel Prize in Physics 1921 | Summary". nobelprize.org. Nobel Foundation. The Nobel Prize in Physics 1921 was awarded to Albert Einstein "for his services to Theoretical Physics, and especially for his discovery of the law of the photoelectric effect."{{cite web}}: CS1 maint: url-status (link)
  6. ^ Verma, H. C. (2013). "42. Photoelectric Effect and Wave–Particle Duality". Concepts of Physics (Volume 2). New Delhi, India: Bharati Bhawan Publishers & Distributors. p. 356. ISBN 8177092324. Threshold wavelength and threshold frequency depend on the metal used.
  7. ^ "Photoelectric effect". Encyclopædia Britannica. Retrieved January 21, 2021. Consideration of these unexpected behaviours led Albert Einstein to formulate in 1905 a new corpuscular theory of light in which each particle of light, or photon, contains a fixed amount of energy, or quantum, that depends on the light's frequency.{{cite web}}: CS1 maint: url-status (link)
  8. ^ Bracher, Christian; Delos, John B.; Kanellopoulos, Vassiliki; Kleber, Manfred; Kramer, Tobias (2005). "The photoelectric effect in external fields". Physics Letters A. Einstein Special Issue. 347 (1): 62–66. doi:10.1016/j.physleta.2005.06.107. ISSN 0375-9601. He predicted that the maximum kinetic energy released from the solid would be ...
  9. ^ Lindberg, David C. (1976). Theories of Vision From Al-Kindi to Kepler. Chicago, United States: University of Chicago Press. p. 12. ISBN 0-226-48235-9. The first full-fledged exposition of a mathematical theory of vision is found in the Optica of Euclid (fl. 300 b.c.). [...] Let it be assumed that the rectilinear rays proceeding from the eye diverge indefinitely.
  10. ^ Lucretius (2001). On the Nature of Things. Translated by Smith, Martin Ferguson. Indianapolis, United States: Hackett Publishing Company, Inc. p. 105. ISBN 0-87220-587-8. In the first place, it is an observable fact that swiftness is very often a characteristic of things that are light and made of minute particles. For example, this is true of the light and heat radiated by the sun, since they are composed of minute particles that hammer one another forward and, under the impulsion of blows from behind, unhesitatingly pass through the intervening air.
  11. ^ Shannon, Robert R. "History of optical microscopes | Microscope". Encyclopædia Britannica. Retrieved January 18, 2021. Three Dutch spectacle makers—Hans Jansen, his son Zacharias Jansen, and Hans Lippershey—have received credit for inventing the compound microscope about 1590.{{cite web}}: CS1 maint: url-status (link)
  12. ^ "Hans Lippershey". Encyclopædia Britannica. Retrieved January 18, 2021. Hans Lippershey, [...] spectacle maker from the United Netherlands, traditionally credited with inventing the telescope (1608).{{cite web}}: CS1 maint: url-status (link)
  13. ^ Stark, Glenn. "Early particle and wave theories | Light". Encyclopædia Britannica. Retrieved January 18, 2021. In La Dioptrique (1637), French philosopher-mathematician René Descartes described light as a pressure wave transmitted at infinite speed through a pervasive elastic medium. The prominent English physicist Robert Hooke studied diffraction effects and thin-film interference and concluded in Micrographia (1665) that light is a rapid vibration of any medium through which it propagates. In his Traité de la Lumière (1690; "Treatise on Light"), the Dutch mathematician-astronomer Christiaan Huygens formulated the first detailed wave theory of light, in the context of which he was also able to derive the laws of reflection and refraction. The most prominent advocate of a particle theory of light was Isaac Newton. [...] He struggled with a formulation of the nature of light, ultimately asserting in Opticks (1704) that light consists of a stream of corpuscles, or particles.{{cite web}}: CS1 maint: url-status (link)
  14. ^ Squires, Gordon Leslie. "Quantum mechanics". Encyclopædia Britannica. Retrieved January 24, 2021. From about 1800, evidence began to accumulate for a wave theory of light. At about this time Thomas Young showed that, if monochromatic light passes through a pair of slits, the two emerging beams interfere, so that a fringe pattern of alternately bright and dark bands appears on a screen. [...] Beginning in 1815, a series of experiments by Augustin-Jean Fresnel of France and others showed that, when a parallel beam of light passes through a single slit, the emerging beam is no longer parallel but starts to diverge; this phenomenon is known as diffraction.{{cite web}}: CS1 maint: url-status (link)
  15. ^ Newton, Isaac (1704). Opticks: or, A Treatise of the Reflexions, Refractions, Inflexions and Colours of Light. London.
  16. ^ Kirchhoff, Gustav (1860). "I. On the relation between the radiating and absorbing powers of different bodies for light and heat". The London, Edinburgh, and Dublin Philosophical Magazine and Journal of Science. 20 (130): 1–21. doi:10.1080/14786446008642901. ISSN 1941-5982.
  17. ^ Planck, Max (1901). "Ueber das Gesetz der Energieverteilung im Normalspectrum" [On the Law of Distribution of Energy in the Normal Spectrum]. Annalen der Physik. 309 (3): 553–563. doi:10.1002/andp.19013090310. ISSN 1521-3889.
  18. ^ Maxwell, James Clerk (1865). "VIII. A dynamical theory of the electromagnetic field". Philosophical Transactions of the Royal Society of London. 155: 459–512. doi:10.1098/rstl.1865.0008.
  19. ^ Planck, Max (1901). "Ueber das Gesetz der Energieverteilung im Normalspectrum" [On the Theory of the Energy Distribution Law of the Normal Spectrum]. Annalen der Physik. 309 (3): 553–563. doi:10.1002/andp.19013090310. ISSN 1521-3889.
  20. ^ Haar, D. ter (1967). "M. Planck: On the Theory of the Energy Distribution Law of the Normal Spectrum". The Old Quantum Theory. Pergamon Press. pp. 82–90. ISBN 978-1483254081.
  21. ^ Hertz, Heinrich (1887). "Ueber sehr schnelle electrische Schwingungen" [About Very Fast Electrical Oscillations]. Annalen der Physik. 267 (7): 421–448. doi:10.1002/andp.18872670707. ISSN 1521-3889.
  22. ^ Hertz, Heinrich (1887). "Ueber einen Einfluss des ultravioletten Lichtes auf die electrische Entladung" [About the Influence of Ultraviolet Light on the Electrical Discharge]. Annalen der Physik. 267 (8): 983–1000. doi:10.1002/andp.18872670827. ISSN 1521-3889.
  23. ^ Lenard, Philipp (1902). "Ueber die lichtelektrische Wirkung" [About the Photoelectric Effect]. Annalen der Physik. 313 (5): 149–198. doi:10.1002/andp.19023130510. ISSN 1521-3889.
  24. ^ Lenard, Philipp (1900). "Erzeugung von Kathodenstrahlen durch ultraviolettes Licht" [Generation of Cathode Rays by Ultraviolet Light]. Annalen der Physik. 307 (6): 359–375. doi:10.1002/andp.19003070611. ISSN 1521-3889.
  25. ^ Einstein, Albert (1905). "Über einen die Erzeugung und Verwandlung des Lichtes betreffenden heuristischen Gesichtspunkt" [On a Heuristic Viewpoint Concerning the Production and Transformation of Light]. Annalen der Physik. 322 (6): 132–148. doi:10.1002/andp.19053220607. ISSN 1521-3889.
  26. ^ Haar, D. ter (1967). "A. Einstein: On a Heuristic Point of View about the Creation and Conversion of Light". The Old Quantum Theory. Pergamon Press. pp. 91–107. ISBN 978-1483254081.
  27. ^ Millikan, Robert Andrews (1914). "A Direct Determination of h". Physical Review. 4 (1): 73–75. doi:10.1103/PhysRev.4.73.2.
  28. ^ Millikan, Robert Andrews (1916). "A Direct Photoelectric Determination of Planck's h". Physical Review. 7 (3): 355–388. doi:10.1103/PhysRev.7.355.
  29. ^ Compton, Arthur Holly (1923). "A Quantum Theory of the Scattering of X-rays by Light Elements". Physical Review. 21 (5): 483–502. doi:10.1103/PhysRev.21.483.
  30. ^ Fowler, Ralph Howard (1931). "The Analysis of Photoelectric Sensitivity Curves for Clean Metals at Various Temperatures". Physical Review. 38 (1): 45–56. doi:10.1103/PhysRev.38.45.
  31. ^ McKagan, S. B.; Handley, W.; Perkins, K. K.; Wieman, C. E. (2008). "A research-based curriculum for teaching the photoelectric effect". American Journal of Physics. 77 (1): 87–94. doi:10.1119/1.2978181. ISSN 0002-9505. However, research shows that students have serious difficulties understanding even the most basic aspects of the photoelectric effect, such as the experimental set-up, experimental results, and implications about the nature of light.
  32. ^ Steinberg, Richard N.; Oberem, Graham E. (2000). "Research-based instructional software in modern physics". Journal of Computers in Mathematics and Science Teaching. 19 (2): 115–136.
  33. ^ Walker, Jearl; Halliday, David; Resnick, Robert (2014). "Chapter 38: Photons and Matter Waves". Fundamentals of Physics. United States: John Wiley & Sons, Inc. p. 1182. ISBN 978-1-118-23072-5.
  34. ^ Young, Hugh D.; Freedman, Roger A. (2016). "38. Photons: Light Waves Behaving as Particles". Sears and Zemansky's University Physics with Modern Physics (14th ed.). Pearson India. p. 1282. ISBN 978-93-325-8628-4.
  35. ^ Ott, R. Lyman; Longnecker, Micheal (2001). "11. Linear Regression and Correlation". An Introduction to Statistical Methods and Data Analysis. United States: Duxbury Thomson Learning. p. 542. ISBN 978-0534251222.
  36. ^ Enders, Felicity Boyd. "Coefficient of determination". Encyclopædia Britannica. Retrieved January 17, 2021. More specifically, R^2 indicates the proportion of the variance in the dependent variable (Y) that is predicted or explained by linear regression and the predictor variable (X, also known as the independent variable).{{cite web}}: CS1 maint: url-status (link)
  37. ^ "CODATA Value: Planck constant". The NIST Reference on Constants, Units, and Uncertainty. National Institute of Standards and Technology, United States Department of Commerce. Retrieved January 17, 2021.{{cite web}}: CS1 maint: url-status (link)
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