User:PenangLion/sandbox 4

Tun Abdul Razak Complex
Komtar Tower in 2023.
Record height
Tallest in Southeast Asia from 1 January 1985 to 10 November 1986[I]
Preceded by	6 Shenton Way
Surpassed by	One Raffles Place
General information
Status	Completed
Architectural style	Brutalism
Location	Penang Road, George Town, Penang, Malaysia.
Coordinates	5.4145°N 100.3292°E / 5.4145; 100.3292
Groundbreaking	1 January 1974 (1 January 1974)
Construction started	Phase 1: 1 January 1974 Phase 2: January 1983 Phase 3: October 2007 Phase 4: October 1996 Phase 5: 2017
Topped-out	1 January 1985
Completed	Phase 1: October 1976 Phase 2: November 1985 Phase 3: June 2010 Phase 4: November 2000 Phase 5: 2019
Opening	Phase 1: 2 December 1976 Phase 2: 2 April 1986 Phase 3: 25 November 2010 Phase 4: January 2001 Phase 5: 9 November 2019
Inaugurated	1 January 1977 (1 January 1977)
Cost	RM 279.5 million
Owner	Penang state government
Other information Height Roof 248.9 m (817 ft) Technical details Floor count Tower: 68 floors Phase 2A: 17 floors Phase 3: 6 floors Phase 4: 10 floors Floor area 4,819,000 sq ft (447,700 m2) Lifts/elevators Tower: 26
Design and construction
Architect(s)	Lim Chong Keat Buckminister Fuller Architects Team 3
Developer	Penang Development Corporation
Structural engineer	Ove Arup & Partners
References
I. ^

The Tun Abdul Razak Complex (Komtar), formerly the Penang Urban Centre, is a civic complex located in the central business district of George Town in Penang, Malaysia. It opened on 2 December 1976. At the time of its completion in 1985, Komtar Tower, at 231.7 m (760 ft), was the second tallest building in Asia and the tallest building in Malaysia. Other buildings in the complex include a hotel building, four shopping malls, an urban park, and a central transportation hub. The complex contains 1,420,000 square feet (132,000 m²) of office and retail space on a 27 acres (11 ha) superblock. It currently houses the administrative offices of the Penang state government.

The main complex was built between 1974 and 1986, at an initial cost of RM279.5 million (equivalent to RM642.5 million in 2023). Plans for a civic complex and commercial centre in central George Town was first proposed by the Penang state government in 1962, and was approved in 1969 by chief minister Lim Chong Eu. The project was extensively studied in 1971 and was implemented by the Penang Development Corporation in 1972. The brutalist complex and skyscraper was designed by Lim Chong Keat, and was to be built in five phases, although only two were completed in its original form. The three phases were later repurposed and built in separate periods between 1996 and 2019. Renovations of the main complex in 2015 extended the height of the building to 249 m (817 ft).

Receptions of Komtar's construction are mixed. Described as a "city within a city", the complex was seen as ahead of its time, and was the largest urban regeneration project in Malaysian history. In spite of this, it ultimately failed to achieve its aims of rejuvenation. Komtar was also controversial for causing mass urban displacements and the demolition of a portion of the city's heritage quarters, which sparked the rise of heritage preservation movements in Penang. In its later years, the complex was plagued by neglect and dilapidation from insufficient maintenance. Despite its controversial status, Komtar has come to symbolise Penang's post-industrialisation prosperity and is one of the most recognised landmarks of George Town. It is also hailed as the last "great national symbols of the 1970s".

Background

Site

• 
  Maxwell and Penang Roads, c.1930s.
• 
  Windsor Building and Capitol Theatre, c.1937.
• 
  Magazine Circus, facing Gladstone Road, c.1930s.

The site from which Komtar now occupies was originally a stretch of the Prangin River, which ran through a swamp. Upon the outbreak of the Napoleonic Wars, the construction of a defensive stone canal began under probable directions from the British East India Company in 1804. The canal was approximately 50 to 80 feet (15 to 24 m) wide. Its base was constructed with bakau pillars and shorewood, and was filled with granite blocks. The canal was meant for agricultural and commercial uses, and it marks the furthest boundaries of George Town at the time.

The location of the canal, being at the very end of the town, was first noted by the Malay population under the name Ujong Pasir, and was later remarked by the local Chinese population in Hokkien as Sia Boey, both coincidentally carrying the same meaning of the "end of the village" (other historians suggested Sia Boey might also mean "a place to sell scrap, or cheap sundry"). In 1806, a marketplace was set up at Sia Boey, which evolved into the Sia Boey Market. Since the 1880s, the market centered around an iron market hall, before closing down permanently in 2004. The canal was narrowed in the 1890s to a width of 20 feet (6.1 m) and a depth of 5 feet (1.5 m). In the 1930s, the area witnessed an economic boom where new businesses were established along the canal.

Adjacent to the site was the Magazine Circus, a roundabout converging on a junction of six roads – Macalister, Dato' Keramat, Penang, Magazine, Brick Kiln, and Gladstone Road. The Malays named it Simpang Enam ("the six-way junction"), while the Chinese called it Go Pha Teng ("the five lamps"), as a reference to street lamps set up at the junction. In 1928, the first traffic lights in Penang were set up at the roundabout. During the Japanese bombing of Penang in December 1941, Sia Boey Market received a direct hit from a bomb, killing hundreds of market-goers.

1960s recession in Penang

See also: Port of Penang and Bayan Lepas

George Town was established as a free port in 1786 and served as a major entrepôt in British Malaya, trading spices and tin. It was also the first port of call east of the Indian subcontinent. After Malayan independence, the federal government shifted commercial and trading activities to Kuala Lumpur, intending to focus on the development of Port Klang. By 1966, federal amendments to customs made the free port status redundant. The federal government eventually revoked George Town's free port status in 1969. These policy changes led to massive unemployment and brain drain, creating a period of recession and urban decay in Penang throughout the 1960s.

A critical memorandum from a chamber of commerce in 1968 estimated that the unemployment rate in Penang was at 15 per cent. On 24 November 1967, responding to the recession, trade unions called for a general strike in George Town, which devolved into a deadly racial riot. Amidst rising discontent, during the 1969 general elections, the ruling Alliance Party led by chief minister Wong Pow Nee was voted out in Penang and replaced by the opposition Malaysian People's Movement Party (Gerakan), with Lim Chong Eu sworn in as chief minister. In 1970, Penang's GDP per capita was 12 per cent below the national average, while its unemployment rate remained at 15 per cent, twice the national average.

Urban development in Penang

After 1972, Bayan Lepas became a major industrial centre in Southeast Asia, primarily producing electronics and semiconductors.

As early as 1964, the Munro Report, drafted by a Colombo Plan advisor, identified Penang's economic weaknesses and urged the state to undergo industrialisation, especially at Seberang Perai. The report was enforced by the Penang Master Plan (Nathan Report), commissioned in March 1970 by the government-sanctioned US-based Robert R. Nathan Associates. The newly-elected state government adopted several initiatives proposed under the Nathan Report, which restructured Penang's economy into an industrialised export-oriented economy.

On 17 November 1969, under Lim Chong Eu's personal direction, the Penang Development Corporation (PDC) was founded as a development arm of the state government. The PDC established the first free trade zone in Penang at Bayan Lepas in January 1972, becoming the centre of the Malaysian electronics industry. Lim negotiated for Gerakan's entry into the Alliance Party as a method to retain a degree of political independence. These measures proved to be effective – for five years between 1975 and 1980, Penang's economy increased by 11.2 per cent annually.

The PDC focused on resolving urban overcrowding by constructing inexpensive multi-storey apartment blocks. Four sites within George Town were designated by the PDC as Comprehensive Development Areas (CDA) for urban redevelopment, which included the construction of low-cost flats on reclaimed land, as well as Komtar. In 1969, the PDC approved the formation of the Central Area Planning Unit (CAPU) for monitoring residential and highway infrastructural projects in George Town, and would eventually be influential in the development of Komtar.

History

Design

Preliminary architectural model of the Penang Urban Centre, 1969–1970.

In 1962, the state government proposed to convert an area around Prangin Road into a hawker centre. The project was contracted to the Malayan Architects Co-Partnership in August 1962, but stalled in February 1963. This proposal was redesignated by the CAPU between 1969 and 1970 as the Central Area Redevelopment Plan. In 1970, the state government selected Singaporean architectural firm Architects Team Three (AT3) for the CAPU, with Lim Chong Keat as lead architect. Ove Arup was selected as the civil and structural engineers for the project. Plans for the urban centre was first announced publicly on 18 November 1970. The CAPU conducted extensive planning studies of the Urban Centre in 1971. It was concluded in August 1972 that the recommended site of the urban centre should be bounded by the Penang, Prangin, Magazine Roads, and Beach Street, on a site 22.4 acres (9.1 ha) in area, with parking for three-thousand vehicles. Additional input from CAPU were made from experts in the University of Penang and a traffic consultant.

Planning of the complex is divided into five different phases; the main complex occupies the first two phases. The first phase, with 301,000 square feet (28,000 m²) in land area, would involve a four-storey retail podium (phase 1A), a geodesic dome (phase 1D), and a central skyscraper. It was aimed at combating against the declining inner-city trade after the 1960s, by integrating a commercial district into the civic centre with a Western-style shopping arcade, where emerging middle-class shoppers living in the city's outer suburbs can shop in. The shopping arcade, which occupies three out of four-storeys of the podium, contains 460,000 square feet (43,000 m²) of retail space. The podium also houses a bus terminal, a public theater, a national archives, police and fire stations, and a rooftop indoor orchid garden with a reflective pool. A hotel for travellers, known as the Hotel De Jour, would be within the third floor of the podium.

The geodesic dome (phase 1D) is positioned above the podium. The geodesic dome, positioned directly adjacent to the reflective pool, was originally 48 metres (157 ft) in diameter and designed as a multipurpose hall with 1,875 seats. It was designed as an all-aluminium, column-free structure, entirely prefabricated from computer designs. The interior of the structure was covered with K-13 spray foam for better indoor acoustics. The dome was influenced by the designs of Buckminster Fuller – a special consultant of the CAPU, who supervised its construction. The skyscraper carries in the form of a 45 or 60-storey 12-sided cylinder column, and was designed with 640,000 square feet (59,000 m²) of office space. 32 high speed lifts are fitted in the complex, with 24 in the tower, each capable of travelling at 1,200 feet (370 m) per minute; while six pairs of escalators are installed in the podium.

The second phase involves the extension of the podium, with 2,000,000 square feet (190,000 m²) of retail space and several civic amenities. To accommodate the displaced residents from the construction site, three 17-storey apartment blocks were allocated for the two phases. The first block, with 194 flats, is designed as a "controlled social programme", planned and sold for selected families of mixed races; these blocks also house several amenities, where access corridors between them are thought of as "streets". The three apartment blocks would house 800 households, with emphasis on accommodating lower income groups. These communities would be linked to a clubhouse, a library, communal swimming pools and several cafes. All three residential blocks are connected with enclosed bridges on the 9th floor.

The Lim Chong Eu Expressway, built between 1985–2010, was designed to link Komtar and George Town's city centre to the Penang Bridge.

Under Lim Chong Eu's vision, the Urban Centre is conceived to be a step in "progressive" urban planning on behalf of the Penang state government. The centre was expected to ease congestion and clear the slums from George Town's city centre which sprung up after the 1960s recession. The complex was described by Lim as a "sign of collaboration" between the federal government and the Penang state government, and "marks a new era for the city of George Town". It was given priority in the New Economic Policy championed under the Razak administration, who stated that the success of this project "will change the outlook of George Town from a colonial heritage to a city reflecting a Malaysian society". Location wise, it was designed to link through a new coastal highway system that leads to a cross-channel linkage and the Penang International Airport. Construction of the first phase was projected to raise the total revenue in the region from RM114,000 in 1974 to around RM3 million in 1984, which would be used as funds for maintenance and upkeep for the civic centre's amenities.

Original construction (1972–1986)

In October 1972, the PDC began the implementation of the first phase of the master plan. As of 1972, 182,516 square feet (16,956.3 m²) of land was owned by the Municipal Council and state government for the construction of the first phase. Between 1972 and 1973, the state government acquired the necessary land for construction, predominantly from inherited landlords of the Straits Chinese elite. The total cost of the land acquisition was estimated at RM21 million in 1973 value. Before the construction, an estimated 769 residential units, 304 shops, 14 industries, four cinemas, three schools, a vehicles' office, a post station, and a fire station around the site were demolished. The demolition displaced 3,175 residents to other parts of the city, including Jelutong, Bayan Baru, and the PDC-funded Macallum Street Ghaut. The Magazine Circus and a huge section of Gladstone Road was removed as well. By 1973, the state government projected the total cost of the entire complex at RM200 million (RM1.04 billion in 2023 value); the first phase at RM77.6 million, with RM40.8 million allocated for the skyscraper. The call of tender for the project's construction concluded on December 1973.

Abdul Razak Hussein, who officiated the groundbreaking ceremony in 1974.

Piling works of the complex concluded at the end of 1973. Groundwork of the complex was supported by a three-metre thick reinforced concrete raft foundation, with 860 composite piles up to 54 metres (177 ft) deep. These enabled the complex to be resistant to tremors up to four on the Modified Mercalli scale. Construction of the first phase of the complex began on 1 January 1974, in a ceremony officiated by Malaysian prime minister Abdul Razak Hussein. It took place on a 0.4 hectares (1 acre) site, which involves 70 units of retail and office space, where 34 per cent of the total area was reserved to Bumiputeras. A two-week exhibition regarding the urban scheme was held near the construction site between 10 to 24 January 1974. In May 1974, work progressed to the main tower block. The four-storey podium was completed within two years and received a soft opening on 2 December 1976. The federal government bought 91,000 square feet (8,500 m²) of office space at Komtar in July 1980. In April 1981, a further 200 units of retail space of 220,620 square feet (20,496 m²) in area opened for business.

Between 23 and 24 January 1983, during construction, a fire broke out at the 41st to 47th floors of the complex.

In January 1983, construction moved to phase two, subdivided into five areas; an electric substation (phase 2A), a department complex (phase 2B), an 11-storey car park with 750 parking spaces (phase 2C), the geodesic dome (phase 2D), and an 11 acres (480,000 sq ft) rooftop garden above the main podium (phase 2E). The total cost of the second phase was estimated at RM110 million (RM265 million in 2023 value). A further RM7 million was allocated for the geodesic dome. However, work was abruptly halted when a major fire broke out on the tower between 23 and 24 January 1983, which gutted the 41st to 47th floors of the complex. Investigations determined that it was likely caused by sparks from welding.

Construction resumed by mid-1983, reaching the 60th floor by May 1984. The skyscraper structurally topped out at the 65th floor on 1 January 1985. In May 1985, plans for the three 17-storey apartment blocks were scrapped and replaced with a single hotel building. The hotel opened as the Shangri-La Inn on 2 April 1986. By May 1986, the main framework for the geodesic dome was finished and inaugurated on 1 July 1986 by Tunku Abdul Rahman. A pedestrian mall was constructed in mid-1990 as the final adjoining part of phase two, occupying half of Maxwell Road and the Prangin Canal, forcing the remnants of the adjacent Prangin Road to merge into one road. By 1990 the total cost of the first two phases rose to RM279.5 million (RM642.5 million in 2023 value), while the state government had collected RM185 million in revenue (RM425 million in 2023 value).

Retail expansion (1990–2000)

Plans for phase 2E, three and four were first drafted in 1990–1991. As early as 1989, a parcel of land situated at the junction of Prangin Road and Penang Road, designated phase 2E of the complex, was put up for sale. In 1991, Malaysian retail chain Metrojaya submitted plans for Metro Plaza, a six-storey department complex for phase 2E. The complex was to cost RM47 million with 340,000 square feet (32,000 m²) of retail space. Metrojaya would acquire parcels of land necessary by 1991. It was later scaled down to a five-storey department complex with 312,000 square feet (29,000 m²) of built-up area, with parking for 240 cars and a staff of 650. Preparation of Metro Plaza began in September 1992 with the demolition of the Capitol Theatre and ten other businesses which sat at the site, while construction was projected to complete within three years. The site remained dormant as of 1995, and it was only in 1996 that talks of construction resumed.

For phase three, Japanese retail group Yaohan proposed to build a nine-storey RM129 million department complex, which was to be completed by 1993. The project sat on an 84,000 square feet (7,800 m²) plot of land running largely parallel to the Prangin Canal, next to phase 2E, and was to be built by Kumagai Gumi. On 25 March 1992, citing its inability to allow majority local participation of the project as required, Yaohan rescinded the 1990 agreement, which led to a private takeover of the site by Lion Group. Demolition works for the site, which began in 1992, involved twelve shophouses, which became a "temporary" parking lot until December 1996. In November 1996, the state government issued a construction ban of all structures beyond five storeys within the city-centre, threatening phase three's cancellation. Eventually, Lion Group submitted an updated proposal in January 1997, featuring a RM170 million 10-storey shopping complex named Mutiara Parade, which was approved with construction slated to start later that year and expected to finish by 1999.

Phase four was an extension of the pedestrian mall, stretching 100 metres (330 ft) beyond Carnavon Street while removing the remnants of the partially cleared Maxwell Road. In September 1990, 155 traders along Prangin Road were relocated to within Komtar and Chowrasta Market in preparation for phase four. Subsequently the extension was cancelled in favour of Prangin Mall, a 1,500,000 square feet (140,000 m²) shopping complex at a cost of RM200 million. The complex was proposed to equip 73 escalators, two "bubble" lifts, an international food centre, six Parisian cafés, a garden mall, and four cinemas with a combined total of 1,800 seats. Excavation works for Prangin Mall began in October 1996. On 3 December, while piling works were undertaken at the site, nearby residents lodged a police report, disclosing that cracks began to surface on over a hundred houses in surrounding areas and that ground subsidence was sighted. Komtar reported similar occurrences, even though officials stated that the complex was not under danger.

Investigations by the Malaysian Public Works Institute (Ikram) and Penang state government concluded that excavation and piling works at the Prangin Mall site led to the migration of underground water away from the city centre, leading to instabilities of the surrounding soil. As a response, the state government requested Prangin Mall's developers to submit a geotechnical report on the flaw, although the report did not reach state officials until 4 February 1997. On 30 January, citing the developers' failure of compliance, Ikram issued a stop work order on Prangin Mall. On 22 February, Ikram expanded the stop work order to phase three, noting similar circumstances. By March, there were over three hundred reports of houses with cracks. Following this, the developers submitted three mitigation measures to the state government and was approved. Mitigation works began on 7 April and lasted for 53 days, costing the developers RM6 million. Ultimately, after mitigation works were complete, the state government lifted the stop work order for Prangin Mall on 15 June 1997 under a 20-point agreement. The incident has since been described as a "crisis" or a "disaster".

The Asian financial crisis which began in late-1997 led to the cancellation of Metro Plaza and Mutiara Parade. Only Prangin Mall was complete by mid-2000, which finally opened in 2001.

Subsequent developments (2002–present)

Sia Boey c. 2017. The land remained vacated until it was redeveloped into an urban park in 2019.

The cancellation of Mutiara Parade suspended any construction on phase three until October 2007, when construction began on 1st Avenue, an 11-storey 430,000 square feet (40,000 m²) shopping mall. The development, costing RM300 million, was modeled after Raffles City Singapore. Construction was completed in June 2010 and opened on 25 November 2010.

Phase five, which occupied Sia Boey Market, was first planned in 1991 as a mixed retail, office and residential development. The land was sold in July 1991 at RM31 million to a private developer for potential development scheduled for 1995 or 1996, but was never built. In 2002, it was planned as a centralised transportation hub, featuring a main interchange terminal of the Bayan Lepas light rail transit line, a proposed light rail transit line running along Penang Island. In anticipation of future construction, Sia Boey Market closed in 2004, even though the site remained vacated for years due to uncertainties in the light rail transit project.

In 2012, phase five was proposed to become an arts district known as the Penang Heritage Square, which featured the complete restoration of heritage shophouses at the site and the construction of a five-storey cultural centre. This project was relocated to Macallum Street Ghaut in 2016 due to plans for an integrated transport hub at Sia Boey. An urban park was later included within the phase, becoming the Sia Boey Urban Archaeological Park. The 2.53 acres (1.02 ha) park, which occupied a disused section of the Prangin Canal, began construction in 2015 and was completed in 2019. The park opened on 9 November 2019. In May 2023, the Malaysian federal government announced that construction of the Bayan Lepas light rail transit line, which includes a terminal at Komtar, would start in early-2024.

Displaced people:

https://dun.penang.gov.my/images/pdf/HANSARD%201982/DISEMBER/6%20DIS%201982.pdf

Bus interchange

https://dun.penang.gov.my/images/pdf/HANSARD%201982/DISEMBER/6%20DIS%201982.pdf

https://dun.penang.gov.my/images/pdf/HANSARD%201982/JUN/14%20-%2015%20JUN%201982.pdf

Criticisms

The Dayabumi Complex, built between 1982–1984, was also questioned as unnecessary towards Malaysia's development.

Komtar was the subject of political contention and controversy during its planning and initial construction, especially receiving criticisms from contemporary opposition political parties, such as the Democratic Action Party and Pekemas. Both parties vowed to scrap the entire masterplan if they gain control of the state government in the 1974 general elections. Yeap Ghim Guan alleged nepotism during the selection of Lim Chong Keat as principal architect due to his familial relations with the chief minister, where the Gerakan state government would pay RM10 million to AT3 for their involvement in the CAPU. Veerappen Veerathan accused the state government of gentrification through the project, saying that it "will only bring RM200 million of misery". In an article from the February-March 1976 issue of the Asian Statist magazine, it was alleged that the cost of construction of the megacomplex had inflated to RM500 million (RM1.91 billion in 2023 value), putting doubts on the state's capabilities to finance the entire project.

American architect Victor Papanek predicted in 1981 that Komtar would fail and become an "eyesore", creating congestion and pollution. After its completion, criticisms shifted to accusations of gentrification. Karpal Singh remarked in 1985 that Komtar is a personal monument of Lim Chong Eu, calling it his "Taj Mahal". The occupancy rates in Komtar have led Lim Kit Siang to describe the complex and the contemporary Dayabumi Complex as "white elephants". This was reflected by poor sales of office space in Komtar, which was impacted by severe office space gluts in 1984. While local, state and federal offices occupied the "low-zones" (10th to 28th floor) and "mid-zones" (29th to 43rd floor) of the skyscraper, the sale of "high-zone" office space to private sectors were reportedly "not encouraging".

Furthermore, the flawed construction of Prangin Mall's foundations in 1997, which resulted in soil subsidence and damages on hundreds of pre-war shophouses in the heritage quarter, have led to calls for the project's cancellation by local residents. It was also feared that the debacle would've created irreversible damages to a substantial portion of the old city quarters. In general, although Komtar was commissioned to replace old city slums from the 1960s, it failed its goal of revitalising George Town.

Decline and revitalisation efforts

Komtar c. 2012, prior to redevelopment.

While Komtar was one of the most popular shopping complexes in Penang in the late-1980s and early-1990s, its status as a premier retail hub declined dramatically in the late-1990s. Starting from the 1970s, the city centre suffered from mass depopulation from displacements of entire neighbourhoods and businesses directly caused by Komtar's construction. Furthermore, by the 1990s, a combination of factors such as economic decline after the Asian financial crisis in 1997 and rising competition from newer and upscale shopping complexes in the outer suburbs such as Gurney Plaza and Penang Times Square exacerbated the decline. The complex was also poorly maintained and generally disliked by tenants due to its crammed and confusing interior layouts.

Attempts of renovation were difficult as the Penang state government only owned one-thirds of all retail units in the complex, while the rest were bought and owned by private businesses, leading to serious disagreements on rental rates and occupancies. In 2005, the two largest anchor tenants of the complex, Super Komtar and Parkson, ceased operations in rapid succession, which decimated foot traffic in the complex. At the turn of 2008, it was estimated that 40 per cent of retailers in the complex had closed down. In its later years, Komtar was plagued by numerous social issues, such as homelessness, drug usage and vandalism. The complex had developed a reputation of being "creepy and unsafe". Other developments such as Komtar Walk, launched in 2009 as a pedestrian mall, was plagued by legal disputes and was demolished then rebuilt in 2019.

As early as 2001, the Penang state government initiated a programme to shift all government functions at Komtar to a new location at Seberang Perai, nicknamed "Mini Putrajaya". It was proposed that Komtar would become a hotel or a commercial centre once the relocation is complete, but the project never took off and was put on hold indefinitely in May 2003. The project was cancelled in 2008 under the newly elected government of Lim Guan Eng due to cost issues. In December 2007, Komtar state assemblyman Lim Gim Soon even proposed to convert the complex into a Chinese secondary school. Several renovations were undertaken at this period, including one in October 2007 which costed RM10 million, and a RM15 million renovation project in April 2008 in conjunction with similar proposals at Fort Cornwallis and Suffolk House, aiming at refurbishing the podium. In 2010, the Penang state government launched plans to renovate the upper sections of the skyscraper. The revitalisation effort, known as The Top, was launched in December 2012, costing RM180 million. As part of the effort, three new floors were constructed, increasing the skyscraper's height to 248.9 m (817 ft). A 16 metres (52 ft) skywalk, three bubble lifts, and a 90-metre-long (300 ft) rope course was added in subsequent renovations in 2018.

• 
  Junction between Komtar bus terminal and Prangin Mall.
• 
  Main entrance of the complex.
• 
  Central atrium of phase two.
• 
  Alternate entrance of the skyscraper through The Top.

Complex

After is completion in late-1985, Komtar stood at 231.7 metres (760 ft) tall, and became the second-tallest skyscraper in Asia, behind Sunshine 60. It was also the tallest skyscraper in Southeast Asia until 10 November 1986, and in Malaysia until 10 June 1988, when it was surpassed by One Raffles Place and Maybank Tower respectively. With 65 floors, it had the highest floor count of any building in Asia until the completion of the Bank of China Tower in January 1990. Upon its opening, it was advertised as the premier commercial district of George Town. It was among the most popular places of congregation for teenagers in the city in the 1980s. Typically, 5,000 people work in the complex daily, including 1,800 workers from state departments. It was projected that 600,000 to a million visitors visit the skyscraper's observation deck annually.

Offices

List of tenants in Komtar

Flrs.		Tenants
68	The Top	Komtar Skywalk
67		Tower Club Penang
66		Gym In The Sky
65		Window of the Top
61–64	High zone	State government of Penang
58–59		Tower Club Penang
55–57		State government of Penang
50–54
44–49
40–43	Mid zone
35–39
33–34
29–32
25–28	Low zone
20–24
18–19
15–17		Penang Island City Council
10–14
7–9	Complex	State government of Penang
6		Grand Imperial Restaurant
5		Tunku Hall, Komtar Auditorium
4		Penang Water Supply Corporation
3		ICT Digital Mall, State government of Penang
2		Urban Transformation Centre
C		Pacific Hypermarket, Maybank, Pos Malaysia

Komtar Tower, which topped out on 1 January 1985, is 248.9 metres (817 ft) tall with 68 storeys. Currently, the skyscraper houses the offices of the Penang state government (level 3, 7–58, and 61–64), the chief minister of Penang (level 28) and the mayor of George Town (level 17). Other office tenants include the Penang Island City Council, Public Services Commission, the Immigration Department of Malaysia, the Malaysian Inland Revenue Board, Tenaga Nasional, Maybank, Pos Malaysia, and the National Higher Education Fund Corporation.

Between December 1982 and January 1984, the Penang state government spent RM45.04 million buying 210,600 square feet (19,570 m²) of office space at Komtar, occupying 17 storeys of the skyscraper. In 1983, the Penang Municipal Council was reportedly forced to move to Komtar by the state government even though its offices at City Hall were sufficient, leading to opposition within the council. This decision, costing RM20 million, would relocate the council's offices to 100,000 square feet (9,300 m²) of office space between the 12th and 17th floors. In 1984, chief minister Lim Chong Eu moved his offices into the 28th floor of the skyscraper. By February 1985, occupancy reached the 33rd floor. In 1986, the offices of the Penang state government, which had been located in Downing Street since 1961, moved to Komtar permanently. It was estimated in 1990 that RM162.7 million worth of office space in Komtar had been sold.

In July 1992, an indoor golf club, reputedly the first in Malaysia, opened at the 56th floor. In 2008, Telekom Malaysia moved into the 58th floor as a call centre. Similarly, prior to 2015 the 64th floor had been rented by telecommunication companies to install their equipment. In 2020, nine federal agencies moved into Komtar under the Urban Transformation Centre at the second and third floors, occupying 42,000 square feet (3,900 m²) of office space.

Observatory deck

Komtar c. 2023, after redevelopment, with The Top at the upper floors.

The first publicly accessible observatory decks at Komtar were between the 57th to 60th floors of the skyscraper. On 15 November 1989, the main observatory deck, the Tower Tourist Centre, was inaugurated at the 58th floor. A duty-free shop, the Metropolitan Duty-Free Shop, opened at the 57th floor in mid-February 1990. The 59th and 60th floors housed a Chinese restaurant known as the Tower Palace. Other attractions include a video room and an amphitheatre for cultural shows. The actual top floor, the 65th floor, was used as a helipad.

Between 2014 and 2016, the top floors of the skyscraper were rebuilt in an extension program known as The Top, which includes the addition of three upper stories and a complete overhaul of all publicly accessible portions in the complex. A new observatory deck known as Window of the Top was constructed at the 65th floor while an open-air deck was built at the 68th floor. Window of the Top, which stood at a height of 239 metres (784 ft), was only accessible through an express lift at the 5th floor. Visitors could view up to 150 kilometres (93 mi) away from the deck, which includes parts of Seberang Perai and Kedah across the Penang Strait. Other attractions on Window of the Top include a souvenir store and an outdoor rope course. The 68th floor, standing at a height of 246.3 metres (808 ft), featured a restaurant called Top View and a semi-circle skywalk which extends beyond the main building.

Podium

The podium at Komtar, which encompasses the 1st to 4th floor, contains a shopping complex which opened in 1976. Komtar had enjoyed the status of northern Malaysia's only shopping complex, creating a retail monopoly with high rental returns, comparable to the Sungei Wang Plaza in Kuala Lumpur in the late-1970s. This situation, which persisted throughout the 1980s, was described as a "shopping centre vacuum".

Dalit Cinema opened on 8 August 1981 as Komtar's first anchor tenant. Super Komtar opened on 6 December 1986 as the first department store in the complex. At the end of the 1980s, it became one of the most profitable and popular department stores in the country. Japanese retail group Yaohan opened at Komtar in November 1988, becoming its first major foreign tenant. It had a staff of 350 and occupied an area of 130,000 square feet (12,000 m²). The first Pizza Hut and White Castle outside of Kuala Lumpur opened at Komtar on January 1989 and 14 June 1989 respectively. Singaporean bookstore chain Popular opened at the complex on 7 August 1991, which operated until 28 November 2021. In 1992, both Yaohan and Metrojaya mooted the idea of building separate department complexes under phase 2E and phase three of the complex, but were never built.

On 30 December 1997, Yaohan rebranded itself as Aktif Lifestyle after its Japanese parent company went bankrupt. Aktif Lifestyle would face financial difficulties and in 2004 the store was bought out by Parkson, becoming Parkson Aktif. The department store closed in 2005. It was replaced by the ICT Digital Mall, which opened on 1 September 2010 as a "tech plaza". Super Komtar would cease operations on 9 March 2005, remaining abandoned for two years before re-opening as Pacific on 17 December 2008.

Transportation

See also: List of bus routes in Penang

Komtar Bus Terminal
Rapid Penang public bus terminal
Bus route 101 at the first lane of the terminal
General information
Location	Tek Soon Street 10100 George Town, Penang Malaysia
Owned by	Penang state government, Penang Island City Council, Rapid Penang
Bus routes	Rapid Penang:  CAT   CT13   CT14   11   12   13   101   102   103   104   201   202   203   204   206   301   302   303   304   306   401   401E   502
Bus stands	5

Komtar is served by the Komtar Bus Terminal, which functions as the main interchange station for Rapid Penang, the sole public transport operator in George Town. The terminal is jointly owned by the Penang state government, the Penang Island City Council, and Rapid Penang.

Previously, the main interchange station at the city was the Prangin Road Bus Station, which had been the bus terminal for private bus companies, such as the Hin Company (Tanjung Bungah–Batu Ferringhi), the Lim Seng Seng Company (Ayer Itam), and the Yellow Bus Company (Jelutong–Bayan Lepas). However, the bus terminal shut down in 1990 for the construction of Prangin Mall. Throughout the late-1980s and 1990s, the Komtar Bus Terminal was consistently criticised for poor cleanliness and maintenance, with a reputation of being a hot spot for mugging and robberies. These criticisms were part of a wider negative sentiment against the state of public transport in Penang at the time.

The introduction of state operator Rapid Penang in July 2007 gradually superseded the private bus companies, eventually occupying the entire terminal. For decades, the bus terminal had been a place of congregation for vagabonds and the homeless, but since September 2023 they have been relocated to nearby state-funded homeless shelters under the directives of the Penang state government. Currently, the terminal serves the 11, 12, 13, 101, 102, 103, 104, 201, 202, 203, 204, 206, 301, 302, 303, 304, 306, 401, 401E, 502, CAT, CT13 and CT14 bus routes of Rapid Penang.

Since the early 2000s, Komtar has been proposed to contain terminal stations of potential light rail transit and monorail lines, such as the Bayan Lepas light rail transit line, the Air Itam monorail line, and the Tanjung Bungah monorail line. However, as of 2023, no construction of these stations were made. Komtar is also the terminal station for the proposed George Town tram line.

Hotel

The earliest plans for a hotel at Komtar was released in 1975, when advertisements for the complex mentioned a hotel for travellers, known as the Hotel De Jour, would be installed in the podium of the first phase, although it was never implemented. In February 1985, it was announced that a 470-suites hotel, known as Komtar Hotel, would be opened in the complex in March 1986 . The hotel opened as Shangri-La Hotel on 2 April 1986. It was rebranded as Traders Hotel on 1 April 2006, and as Hotel Jen in late-2014.

Other buildings

Besides the main complex, three other structures stood at the site. The oldest was a 470-suites, 17-storey hotel block which opened as the Shangri-La Hotel on 2 April 1986. The hotel was rebranded as the Traders Hotel on 1 April 2006, and as Hotel Jen in late-2014. Other structures in the main podium include the Tunku Hall, a geodesic dome built in 1986. Inspired by The Tech in San Jose, the dome was repurposed as a science museum in 2016. Two further shopping malls were constructed east of the complex; Prangin Mall (phase 4) opened in 2001, while 1st Avenue (phase 3) opened in 2010.

Logo and branding

The original design of Komtar's logo was a minimalistic outline of the complex resembling the letters "TAR" – an abbreviation of the complex's name. In 2015, a new logo was introduced featuring the words "Komtar" in red to symbolise ong, the Hokkien word for auspicious, with the letter "T" as a hand-drawn image of the tower.

https://faqar.blogspot.com/2015/08/logo-baru-komtar-harap-tarik-perhatian.html

https://www.thestar.com.my/Metro/Community/2015/08/21/Simple-logo-towers-over-the-rest-Graphic-designer-clinches-RM3000-prize-in-Komtar-logo-design-contes/

https://www.buletinmutiara.com/logo-baru-komtar-harap-tarik-perhatian-umum/

https://www.edgeprop.my/content/penangs-komtar-gets-logo-designed-bukit-mertajam-designer

Legacy

Effects on the city centre

The construction of Komtar resulted in the destruction of a huge section of the heritage quarters along Penang Road and the Prangin Canal, which had been an important enclave of the Chinese riverine settlement in George Town. Over three hundred historic landmarks were demolished in the process, including the Jinricksha Office, the Capitol Theatre, and the Penang Road Fire Station. Gladstone Road, which ran from the Magazine Circus at its western end and Carnavon Street at its eastern end, was built over and disappeared under the complex, leaving a remnant at its eastern end that was removed in 2000.

With the rise of the service industry in Penang after its industrialisation in the 1980s, Komtar's status as a large centralised financial district decimated smaller, traditional businesses in the city centre. The irreversible changes towards the city centre following Komtar's completion were cited as one of the main factors leading to a rise of heritage preservation movements in Penang. In 1986, the Penang Heritage Trust was founded, and in 1989 the first heritage conservation enactments were passed in the state legislature. These efforts culminated in the establishment of a conservation zone, involving a 269 acres (109 ha) "heritage core zone" and a 390 acres (160 ha) "buffer zone" inscribed by UNESCO in 2008, which banned any alterations to all historic structures in George Town's urban core.

Komtar was a centrepiece under the ideal Wawasan 2020, which encouraged urban construction and renewal throughout Malaysian cities, leading to a development boom. Private development applications in Penang peaked in the mid-1990s, which made the heritage quarters susceptible to demolition like those of Komtar, a trend that was only halted after the Asian financial crisis in 1997. Despite this, following the complex's completion in 1985, the Penang state government would never again undertake any urban redevelopment programmes within the heritage quarters, instead opting for land reclamation. This strategy, first employed in the expansion of the Bayan Lepas Free Industrial Zone in the late 1970s, allowed state authorities to skip negotiations and avoid overly complicated resettlement agreements, thereby reducing acquisition costs. From 1980 to 2000, almost all of George Town's east coast was reclaimed, and by 2015 total reclaimed land in the city was estimated to be 9.5 square kilometres (3.7 sq mi) in area.

Incidents

https://dun.penang.gov.my/images/pdf/HANSARD%201975/SEPTEMBER/2%20SEP%201975.pdf

Komtar c. 2017.

Komtar experienced an earthquake on 30 May 1984. On 29 November 1988, three people robbed RM110,000 of jewellery and gold watches from the Yaohan department store, leaving one injured. On 24 July 2015, a fire broke out in the abandoned Dalit Cinema, which was extinguished in 20 minutes.

aktif lifestyle

https://books.google.com.my/books?id=zqc9AAAAIBAJ&pg=PA16&dq=lion+group+komtar&article_id=3228,3577473&hl=en&sa=X&ved=2ahUKEwi0-Mm_29aCAxXOqFYBHZTjDL8Q6AF6BAgHEAI#v=onepage&q=lion%20group%20komtar&f=false

"piano in the recital hall"

https://books.google.com.my/books?id=4rsTAAAAIBAJ&pg=PA27&dq=komtar&article_id=2962,4160685&hl=en&sa=X&ved=2ahUKEwjgsbeY5OCBAxV9SmwGHVazBMw4ZBDoAXoECAcQAg#v=onepage&q=komtar&f=false

"missappropriation of government priorities on Penang's development"

https://books.google.com.my/books?id=dQNOAAAAIBAJ&pg=PA7&dq=komtar&article_id=6555,1223254&hl=en&sa=X&ved=2ahUKEwi0kdCKld6BAxWTRWcHHeUWBwYQ6AF6BAgBEAI#v=onepage&q=komtar&f=false

https://books.google.com.my/books?id=58kpAAAAIBAJ&pg=PA2&dq=komtar&article_id=6940,3429873&hl=en&sa=X&ved=2ahUKEwiRkNe_ld6BAxUZcGwGHSeNCAIQ6AF6BAgIEAI#v=onepage&q=komtar&f=false

Prangin mall:

https://books.google.com.my/books?id=Lg5PAAAAIBAJ&pg=PA2&dq=ikram+report&article_id=4607,12988&hl=en&sa=X&ved=2ahUKEwi6uparit6BAxWEZ2wGHdsjAVsQ6AF6BAgNEAI#v=onepage&q=ikram%20report&f=false

https://books.google.com.my/books?id=5qNUAAAAIBAJ&pg=PA14&dq=phase+two+komtar&article_id=5130,3447244&hl=en&sa=X&ved=2ahUKEwibvfSSkN6BAxWzUGwGHVa3BW0Q6AF6BAgIEAI#v=onepage&q=phase%20two%20komtar&f=false

"lack of bumi representation or aid / gentrification"

https://books.google.com.my/books?id=2rsTAAAAIBAJ&pg=PA14&dq=komtar&article_id=3455,1381639&hl=en&sa=X&ved=2ahUKEwiDsK7Oxd6BAxXDXmwGHducBJsQ6AF6BAgEEAI#v=onepage&q=komtar&f=false

https://books.google.com.my/books?id=hEAQAAAAIBAJ&pg=PA5&dq=komtar&article_id=6865,3569193&hl=en&sa=X&ved=2ahUKEwiDsK7Oxd6BAxXDXmwGHducBJsQ6AF6BAgMEAI

https://books.google.com.my/books?id=dUAQAAAAIBAJ&pg=PA6&dq=komtar&article_id=4851,713429&hl=en&sa=X&ved=2ahUKEwiDsK7Oxd6BAxXDXmwGHducBJsQ6AF6BAgFEAI

"compensation controversy"

https://books.google.com.my/books?id=BEo1AAAAIBAJ&pg=PA6&dq=urban+centre+penang&article_id=1097,811459&hl=en&sa=X&ved=2ahUKEwj5pe3b_t2BAxWaF4gKHQ5gBtUQ6AF6BAgHEAI#v=onepage&q=urban%20centre%20penang&f=false

"bumi supports komtar"

https://books.google.com.my/books?id=i90qAAAAIBAJ&pg=PA11&dq=penang+urban+centre&article_id=1569,2525168&hl=en&sa=X&ved=2ahUKEwiisNDPgt6BAxUNEIgKHff1B_84FBDoAXoECAwQAg#v=onepage&q=penang%20urban%20centre&f=false

"komtar ad 1985"

https://books.google.com.my/books?id=3udLAAAAIBAJ&pg=PA15&dq=komtar+fire&article_id=4173,3136510&hl=en&sa=X&ved=2ahUKEwjouNjDjN6BAxUqa2wGHf25D-Y4ChDoAXoECAYQAg#v=onepage&q=komtar%20fire&f=false

"PDC changed approach after komtar"

https://books.google.com.my/books?id=EVpPAAAAIBAJ&pg=PA4&dq=komtar+million&article_id=6844,3110095&hl=en&sa=X&ved=2ahUKEwiBv4vf6uCBAxVz3TgGHVpkBbc4MhDoAXoECAUQAg#v=onepage&q=komtar%20million&f=false

Complex

Priorities

https://books.google.com.my/books?id=iN0qAAAAIBAJ&pg=PA1&dq=new+urban+centre+for+penang&article_id=6604,2200075&hl=en&sa=X&ved=2ahUKEwjryfW4_NuBAxVCV2wGHR5LCV84FBDoAXoECAQQAg#v=onepage&q=new%20urban%20centre%20for%20penang&f=false

https://books.google.com.my/books?id=j4YjAAAAIBAJ&pg=PA6&dq=new+urban+centre+for+penang&article_id=5001,5812641&hl=en&sa=X&ved=2ahUKEwjryfW4_NuBAxVCV2wGHR5LCV84FBDoAXoECAgQAg#v=onepage&q=new%20urban%20centre%20for%20penang&f=false

May be used for Penang International Airport, Port of Penang, and the industrialisation of Penang:

NST 31 August 1974

https://books.google.com.my/books?id=OastAAAAIBAJ&pg=PA17&dq=new+urban+centre+for+penang&article_id=1068,7079065&hl=en&sa=X&ved=2ahUKEwig7KnV-duBAxWszDgGHYPGCaA4ChDoAXoECAQQAg#v=onepage&q=new%20urban%20centre%20for%20penang&f=false

1974:

https://eresources.nlb.gov.sg/newspapers/digitised/article/newnation19740824-1.2.16.12?qt=urban,%20centre,%20penang&q=urban%20centre%20penang

https://eresources.nlb.gov.sg/newspapers/digitised/page/straitstimes19740101-1.1.7

1975:

https://eresources.nlb.gov.sg/newspapers/digitised/page/newnation19750725-1.1.10

https://eresources.nlb.gov.sg/newspapers/digitised/page/newnation19750725-1.1.11

https://eresources.nlb.gov.sg/newspapers/digitised/page/newnation19750801-1.1.3

1976

https://eresources.nlb.gov.sg/newspapers/digitised/article/straitstimes19761201-1.2.81.9?qt=komtar&q=komtar

1983

https://eresources.nlb.gov.sg/newspapers/digitised/page/straitstimes19830201-1.1.15

https://eresources.nlb.gov.sg/newspapers/digitised/page/straitstimes19740101-1.1.7

https://eresources.nlb.gov.sg/newspapers/digitised/page/straitstimes19740102-1.1.7

https://books.google.com.my/books?hl=en&lr=&id=PZqmsCgJdxgC&oi=fnd&pg=PA6&dq=komtar+&ots=BDmTYRnYhc&sig=lLvfXJwQEsYNrhOqZAFBohp8IkU#v=onepage&q=komtar&f=false

https://www.cambridge.org/core/journals/modern-asian-studies/article/abs/some-observations-on-coalition-politics-in-penang/2C625CEBDFDBDED8922BE431BE96230B

https://heinonline.org/HOL/LandingPage?handle=hein.journals/wrldbul3&div=26&id=&page=

https://books.google.com.my/books?id=ocS3RFs8E3UC&printsec=frontcover#v=onepage&q=komtar&f=false

"Sex in the factories":

https://www.cambridge.org/core/books/abs/from-free-port-to-modern-economy/from-munro-to-nathan-the-rise-of-a-modern-economy-in-penang/2602486486D74853CC05A6AB43BADBB7

https://www.jstor.org/stable/24491733?read-now=1&seq=3#page_scan_tab_contents

https://cir.nii.ac.jp/crid/1390282680084418432?lang=en

https://profile.nus.edu.sg/fass/socgohd/trans_2.1.pdf

https://web.archive.org/web/20161021050918/http://penangmonthly.com/raising-komtar/

https://www.jstor.org/stable/24494662?seq=17

https://www.researchgate.net/publication/346553015_From_Free_Port_to_Modern_Economy_Economic_Development_and_Social_Change_in_Penang_1969_to_1990_Book_review

https://www.cambridge.org/core/journals/trans-trans-regional-and-national-studies-of-southeast-asia/article/between-history-and-heritage-postcolonialism-globalisation-and-the-remaking-of-malacca-penang-and-singapore/35674CFC127BC80D81A186EFA672C7C6

https://theedgemalaysia.com/article/free-port-no-more-burden-penangs-first-cm

https://www.nottingham.ac.uk/gep/documents/conferences/2012/malaysia-conference/prema-chandra-athukorala.pdf

https://theedgemalaysia.com/article/highlight-penangs-untold-story-hartal-1967-1

https://www.jstor.org/stable/26527713?searchText=penang+1969+gerakan+lim+chong+eu&searchUri=%2Faction%2FdoBasicSearch%3FQuery%3Dpenang%2B1969%2Bgerakan%2Blim%2Bchong%2Beu&ab_segments=0%2Fbasic_search_gsv2%2Fcontrol&refreqid=fastly-default%3A8d27368095174ede7ed231c8cf1bce2d

Original map of KOMTAR phases: https://www.pht.org.my/newsletters/1997_01.pdf

Displaced residents: https://www.jstor.org/stable/24494662?seq=17 (p. 633)

http://eprints.usm.my/52991/1/Pages%20from%2000000412386.pdf

https://www.jstor.org/stable/41493750?read-now=1&seq=3#page_scan_tab_contents

https://gtwhi.com.my/wp-content/uploads/2020/02/20190801-Integrated-Site-Management-Report.pdf

https://archive.org/details/penangpostcardco0000khoo

Penang At War, Andrew Barber

Legacy

Architectural and cultural importance

Komtar is regarded as an icon of Penang, and is seen as the state's most famous landmark. It is also an important hub for Penang's public bus system. It is described as a "city within a city", and was hailed as one of the last "great national symbols of the 1970s". Architecture wise, Komtar was Penang's first modernist structure and an important example of post-colonial modernist architecture in Southeast Asia. The complex was reflective of Malaysia's post-independence period in the 1960s with the construction of modernist landmarks such as the Houses of Parliament (1959–1962), the National Mosque (1963–1965), and the National Stadium (1960–1962) which intended to replace traditional architectural styles with bold and modern designs. The geodesic dome was noted as Buckminister Fuller's final significant contribution in Southeast Asia.

Komtar's layout and design was radical and utopian for its time. However, while other Malaysia modernist structures were built to expel the country's colonial past, Komtar was seen instead as an unique expression of critical regionalism, where its modernist elements were built in a way to resonate with George Town's entrenched colonial history. Despite this, Komtar lacked enough appreciation for its regionalist characteristics, and was rejected by the populace for being too radical. Komtar's failure to revitalise George Town has made it into a notable case study for failed architectural experiments.

See also

• Penang Bridge
• Kuala Lumpur City Centre
• World Trade Center (1973–2001)
• Architecture of Penang

References

Bibliography

Publications

• Jenkins, Gwynn (2008). Contested Space: Cultural Heritage and Identity Reconstructions: Conservation Strategies Within a Developing Asian City. Volume 20, Freiburger Sozialanthropologische Studien Series. LIT Verlag Münster. ISBN 9783825813666 – via Google Books.
• Kharas, Homi; Zeufack, Albert; Majeed, Hamdan (2010). Cities, people & the economy: A study on positioning Penang (PDF). Kuala Lumpur: Khazanah Nasional. ISBN 9789834419332.
• Khoo, Salma Nasution (2003). Penang Postcard Collection: 1899-1930s (Hardcover ed.). George Town: Areca Books. ISBN 9789832885009.
• Lim, Chong Keat (1972). Central Area Redevelopment Plan for Penang (1962–1986). George Town: Architects Team Three. pp. A16–A32 – via M+.
• Naidu, Dinesh (2012). Southeast Asian Personalities of Chinese Descent: A Biographical Dictionary. Vol. 1. Singapore: ISEAS Publishing. pp. 766–768. ISBN 9789814345217 – via Docomomo Singapore.
• Ooi, Kee Beng; Goh, Ban Lee (2010). "Political Masters and Master Plans". Pilot Studies for a New Penang. Singapore: Institute of Southeast Asian Studies. pp. xx–xxx. ISBN 9789814279697.
• Penang Development Corporation; George Town World Heritage Incorporated (2016). "3.1: Historical Background". Sia Boey Integrated Site Management Plan (PDF). George Town.{{cite book}}: CS1 maint: location missing publisher (link)
• Tew, Peng Kooi (2001). "Bab 7: Penganjur Kebajikan Rakyat" [Chapter 7: Promoter of social welfare] (PDF). Kepemimpinan Tun Dr. Lim Chong Eu di Pulau Pinang sehingga 1974 [Premiership of Tun Dr. Lim Chong Eu in Penang until 1974] (PDF) (Master thesis) (in Malay). Kuala Lumpur: University Malaya. pp. 205–267.
• Lim, Gim Soon (1999). "Soalan-soalan yang dikemukakan untuk mendapat jawapan-jawapan bertulis daripada Y.A.B Ketua Menteri" [Questions raised to receive written responses from The Honourable Chief Minister]. Mesyuarat Pertama Penggal Pertama Dewan Undangan Negeri Pulau Pinang Kesepuluh [Articles raised in the first session and first meeting of the tenth Legislative Assembly of Penang] (PDF) (in Malay). George Town: Penang State Legislative Assembly. p. 18.

Academic journals

• Teh, Yee Sing; Yoh, Sasaki (2016). "Rehabilitation and Conservation Framework of Old Inner Area in Asian Mega Cities" (PDF). International Journal of the Malay World and Civilisation. 4 (Special Issue 2): 13–24. doi:10.17576/IMAN-2016-04SI2-02. Retrieved 26 September 2023 – via National University of Malaysia.
• Ang, Ming Chee; Looram, Charlotte Papillaud; Chimalapati, Virajitha (2020). "Community archaeology in Sia Boey Integrated Management Plan, Malaysia". Journal of Community Archaeology & Heritage. 7 (3): 161–170. doi:10.1080/20518196.2020.1767386. ISSN 2051-8196 – via Taylor & Francis.
• Nesadurai, Helen E. S. (1991). "The Free Trade Zone In Penang, Malaysia: Performance And Prospects". Southeast Asian Journal of Social Science. 19 (1/2): 103–138. ISSN 0303-8246. JSTOR 24491733 – via JSTOR.
• Goh, Daniel P. S. (2014a). "Between History and Heritage: Post-Colonialism, Globalisation, and the Remaking of Malacca, Penang, and Singapore". TRaNS: Trans-Regional and -National Studies of Southeast Asia. 2 (1): 79–101. doi:10.1017/trn.2013.17. ISSN 2051-364X – via National University of Singapore.
• Hutchinson, Francis Edward (2008). ""Developmental" States and Economic Growth at the Sub-National Level: The Case of Penang". Southeast Asian Affairs: 223–244. ISSN 0377-5437. JSTOR 27913361 – via JSTOR.
• Cheng, Edmund W.; Li, Anthony H. F.; Ma, Shu-Yun (2014). "Resistance, Engagement, and Heritage Conservation by Voluntary Sector: The Case of Penang in Malaysia". Modern Asian Studies. 48 (3): 617–644. ISSN 0026-749X. JSTOR 24494662 – via JSTOR.
• Snider, Nancy L. (1968). "What Happened in Penang?". Asian Survey. 8 (12): 960–975. doi:10.2307/2642150. ISSN 0004-4687. JSTOR 2642150 – via JSTOR.
• Sharifah, Fairuz Syed Fadzil; Sia, Sheau-Jiunn (2004). "Sunlight control and daylight distribution analysis: the KOMTAR case study". Building and Environment. 39 (6): 713–717. doi:10.1016/j.buildenv.2003.12.009 – via Elsevier.
• Utterback, Christine (1997). "New York Central Park" (PDF). PHT newsletter (38/39). George Town: Penang Heritage Trust: 1–2.
• Goh, Daniel P.S. (2014). "Between History and Heritage: Post-Colonialism, Globalisation, and the Remaking of Malacca, Penang, and Singapore" (PDF). TRaNS: Trans -Regional and -National Studies of Southeast Asia. 2 (1): 79–101. doi:10.1017/trn.2013.17.

News reports, advertisements and public notices

• "5 Killed in Malaysian Rioting Over Devaluation; 91 Hurt in Penang in 6 Hours of Chinese-Malay Fighting - Communists Blamed". The New York Times. Associated Press. 25 November 1967. p. 6. ISSN 0362-4331.

• "Loss of status: 'No other choice...'". The Straits Times. 24 May 1967. p. 6.
• "Ooi: We lost it last year". The Straits Times. 24 May 1967. p. 6.
• "The gloomy future for Penang". The Straits Times. 13 August 1968. p. 10.{{cite news}}: CS1 maint: url-status (link)
• "Penang Plight's". The Straits Times. 15 August 1968. p. 10.{{cite news}}: CS1 maint: url-status (link)
• "NOW WONG SAYS IT... Penang no longer a free port". The Straits Budget. 16 October 1968. p. 10.
• "$200 mil wanted for new urban centre". The Straits Times. 14 November 1973. p. 5.
• "Multi-million dollar civic centre for Penang". The Straits Times (Malaysian ed.). 5 September 1973. p. 6.
• "Tawaran-tawaran untuk kerja 'Piling to Phase 1-A, Penang Urban Centre'". The Straits Times (Malaysian ed.). 4 December 1973. p. 19.
• "Tun in Penang". The Straits Times. 24 December 1973. p. 10.
• "Penang's $200 mil project". The Straits Times. 1 January 1974. p. 7.
• "Lim: Urban Centre a victory for progressive planning..." The Straits Times. 2 January 1974. p. 7.{{cite news}}: CS1 maint: url-status (link)
• "Kompleks Angkasa Perdana Pulau Pinang". The Straits Times. 25 July 1975. p. 16.
• "Penang's $200 m pace-setting complex". The Straits Times. 1 December 1976. p. 16.
• "Hundreds jolted as tremor shakes building". The Straits Times. 30 May 1984. p. 13.
• "Traders in Penang road live in fear of building collapse". The Straits Times. 8 March 1997. p. 22.

• ""Urban centre will only bring $200 million of misery"". New Straits Times. 22 November 1973. p. 4.
• "Penang-mainland link by 1978: A bridge it is". New Straits Times. 1 January 1974. p. 1.
• "Urban Centre". New Straits Times. 9 January 1974. p. 22.
• "That Penang Urban Centre: Going up–a 45-storey tower". New Straits Times. 1 May 1974. p. 8.
• "Penang battle grows louder". New Straits Times. 19 August 1974. p. 10.
• "Giving the people a bigger slice of the cake". New Straits Times. 31 August 1974. p. 12.
• "Buckminister Fuller's designs for Penang". New Straits Times. 11 October 1974. p. 11.{{cite news}}: CS1 maint: url-status (link)
• "Penang corp accused of not following rules". New Straits Times. 19 February 1976. p. 7.
• "Federal govt to take over State office complex". New Straits Times. 15 July 1980. p. 14.
• "Komtar will be an eyesore, says US don". New Straits Times. 6 November 1981. p. 10.
• "Fire guts upper floors of Penang skyscraper". New Straits Times. 24 January 1983. p. 13.
• "Uniform Building. Fey-Laws Almost Ready". New Straits Times. 21 February 1983. p. 14.
• Cheah, S. C. (23 June 1983). "Largest roof garden for Komtar project". New Straits Times. p. 8.
• "Tun Dr Awang to leave his mark on Komtar Tower". New Straits Times. 27 December 1984. p. 4.
• "Komtar to have earthquake resistant features". New Straits Times. 16 February 1985. p. 4.
• Rahman, Shukor (6 February 1985). "Penang streets' colourful past". New Straits Times. p. 36.
• "Komtar Hotel Sdn. Bhd". New Straits Times. 11 May 1985. p. 8.
• Todd, Halinah (24 May 1985). "Penang: What economic future?". New Straits Times. p. 10.
• Veerasingam, Visa; Moses, Balan; Ahmad, Fizi (13 November 1985). "Abdullah on aims of student unity scheme". New Straits Times. p. 11.
• Lim, Eng Been (19 November 1985). "Lim – a twilight of a political maestro". New Straits Times. p. 3.
• "Tender Notice: Kompleks Tun Abdul Razak Pulau Pinang – Subphase 1D Geodesic Dome". New Straits Times. 7 February 1986. p. 7.
• "40% opening discount at Penang's finest address". The Straits Times. 12 March 1986. p. 11.
• "Work in Full Swing on Komtar Geodesic Dome". New Straits Times. 14 May 1986. p. 5.{{cite news}}: CS1 maint: url-status (link)
• Lee, Keng Fatt (8 June 1986). "City's Dome of Pride". New Straits Times. p. 11.
• "Tunku touched by State Govt's gesture". New Straits Times. 1 July 1986. p. 4.
• Haniff, Mokhtar (17 April 1987). "'Hall in Komtar can hold 1,875 people'". New Straits Times. p. 11.
• "Kompleks Tun Abdul Razak (Komtar) Phase 2E–Sale of Land by Tender". New Straits Times. 31 October 1989. p. 7.
• "Komtar raked in $185m for state government". New Straits Times. 12 June 1990. p. 3.
• "Yaohan to build $129 million department store". New Straits Times. 31 July 1990. p. 24.
• Lim, Ai Lee (12 September 1990). "Penang's famous market". New Straits Times. p. 3.
• Lim, Ai Lee (12 September 1990). "Other side of Prangin Road". New Straits Times. p. 3.
• Ahmad, Baidura (7 August 1991). "Metrojaya confident of rewarding years ahead". New Straits Times. p. 15.
• "Metrojaya to spend $47 million on complex". New Straits Times. 10 August 1991. p. 15.
• Taib, Harris Iskandar (21 May 1992). "Retail giant reaches out to Penang". New Straits Times. p. 4.
• "PMI hopes to benefit from Asian economies". New Straits Times. 17 July 1995. p. 28.
• "Penas Group to build five shopping centres". New Straits Times. 9 February 1996. p. 23.
• "Metrojaya looking for sites outside Klang Valley". New Straits Times. 11 April 1996. p. 25.
• "Penang to probe cause of cracks at Komtar". New Straits Times. 25 January 1997. p. 13.
• James, Agnes (3 February 1997). "Affected residents want mall project discontinued" (PDF). New Straits Times. pp. unk.
• "Ikram report will decide fate of Prangin project". New Straits Times. 21 February 1997. p. 2.
• "Proposed mall touted a shopping paradise". New Straits Times. 21 February 1997. p. 2.
• James, Agnes; Emmanuel, Marine (22 February 1997). "Prangin Mall 'cause of cracks'". New Straits Times. p. 2.
• Emmanuel, Marine (2 March 1997a). "Checks on Komtar Tower show building is safe". New Straits Times. p. 2.
• "RM6 million more to remedy Prangin Mall woes". New Straits Times. 6 March 1997. p. 3.
• "Fewer cracks around Prangin Mall project". New Straits Times. 9 March 1997. p. 7.
• Lee, Keng Fatt (23 March 1997). "Affected parties may get data on cracks". New Straits Times. p. 4.
• "No lifting yet of stop-work order, says TAC". New Straits Times. 13 April 1997. p. 6.
• "Stop work order on mall project may be lifted". New Straits Times. 11 May 1997. p. 8.
• "Koh: Mall builders must submit RM2.3mil bond". New Straits Times. 31 May 1997. p. 17.
• "Art that reflects a watershed event". New Straits Times. 7 June 1997. p. 3.
• Dermawan, Audrey (30 May 2023). "Penang LRT project set to start by year-end". New Straits Times.

• Nambiar, Predeep (29 July 2019). "Once-filthy Prangin Canal turned into an aquarium". Free Malaysia Today.
• Nambiar, Pradeep (9 March 2017). "Penang's Komtar aims for world's tallest mural". Free Malaysia Today.

• "Penang's iconic Komtar gets RM50m facelift". Malay Mail. 29 October 2013.
• Mok, Opalyn (22 June 2016). "Penang arts district relocated to Macallum Street; Sia Boey to be transport hub". Malay Mail.
• Mok, Opalyn (10 March 2019a). "The making of Penang's very own Central Park in historic Sia Boey". Malay Mail.
• Mok, Opalyn (29 July 2019b). "Clean Prangin Canal with fishes swimming in it is real, Penang agencies insist". Malay Mail.

• Lim, Ai Lee (7 January 1997). "Building of Komtar Phase 3 starts soon" (PDF). The Star. p. 18.{{cite news}}: CS1 maint: url-status (link)
• Cheah, Ui-hoon (1 February 1997). "Make public details about project: Architect" (PDF). The Star. p. 15.
• "Groups to press for lifting of freeze" (PDF). The Star. 4 February 1997. p. 18.
• Emmanuel, Marina (15 June 1997b). "Developers of Prangin Mall get 20 conditions" (PDF). The Star. pp. unk.
• Chong, Kwee Kim (11 January 2001). "Paths of Yesteryear" (PDF). The Star. George Town. p. 12.
• Devi, K. Katsuri; Filmer, Andrea (4 May 2008). "Putting Komtar together again". The Star.{{cite news}}: CS1 maint: url-status (link)
• "Penang to scrap 'Mini Putrajaya' project". The Star. 4 May 2008.
• Tan, Sin Chow; Tan, Ann (3 November 2008). "Complex a boost to Komtar". The Star.
• Dielenberg, Priscilla (10 September 2010). "1st Avenue mall in George Town set to open doors in November". The Star.
• Chong, Kah Yuan; Filmer, Andrea (2 August 2012). "Remembering Sia Boey". The Star.
• "OWG to finish RM180mil Komtar revitalisation job by year-end". The Star. 20 January 2016.
• Lo, Tern Chern (2 February 2018). "World's tallest rope course opening in Komtar this month". The Star.
• Sekaran, R (13 April 2022). "Spicing up the scene in city centre". The Star.

• "Penang's 1st Avenue set to open in 3Q10". The Edge. 4 November 2009.
• "Penang's 1st Avenue mall to open Sept". The Edge. 16 June 2010.
• "Penang calls for proposals to revive Komtar's charm". The Edge. 18 August 2010.
• Khoo, Ethel (19 December 2020). "Transforming prime land into historic community park". The Edge.

• "New urban centre for George Town". Singapore Herald. 18 November 1970. p. 14.
• Teh, Evelyn (1 December 2017). "Where the sea meets the city is where the world meets Penang". Penang Monthly. Archived from the original on 1 December 2017.
• "Raising Komtar". Penang Monthly. February 2016. Archived from the original on 21 October 2016.
• Tan, Jessinta (1 March 2008). "From an icon of progress...to a symbol of shame and neglect?". Today. p. 18.{{cite news}}: CS1 maint: url-status (link)
• Choo, Jennifer (28 September 2021). "Architectural Icon: How Komtar, Penang's First Modernist Skyscraper, Changed The Face Of George Town". Tatler.{{cite news}}: CS1 maint: url-status (link)
• "The bridge is a promise of the future". New Nation. 24 August 1974. p. 4.
• "Kompleks Angkasa Perdana Pulau Pinang". New Nation. 25 July 1975. p. 11.
• "We're proud to announce the perfect conference address". The Business Times. 29 November 1985. p. 14.
• Li, Diyuan (14 April 2016). "一起见证 光大蜕变" [Let us witness the change of Komtar]. Kwong Wah Yit Poh (in Chinese). Archived from the original on 9 February 2020.

• "Penang launches first Urban Archeological Park in the country". Bulletin Mutiara. 9 November 2019.
• "PDC calls for concerted efforts to solve Komtar safety and social issues". Bulletin Mutiara. 22 October 2021.
• Lai, Lucia (2 August 2012). "Proposed Heritage Square for Penang". Citizens Journal.

Online articles

• Speechly, Soon-Tzu (6 June 2016). "Komtar: Malaysia's Monument to Failed Modernism". Failed Architecture. Retrieved 25 September 2023.{{cite web}}: CS1 maint: url-status (link)
• McCready, Alastair (8 July 2021). "1972, The Year That Transformed Penang". Southeast Asia Globe. Retrieved 27 September 2023.{{cite web}}: CS1 maint: url-status (link)
• "Arup – Malaysia". arup.com. Arup Group. 2023.
• "Visit us". prangin-mall.com. Prangin Mall. 2023.