User:Phlsph7/Hedonism - History
History
[edit]Ancient
[edit]Hedonism is one of the oldest philosophical theories and some interpreters trace it back to the Epic of Gilgamesh, written around 2100–2000 BCE.[1] A central topic in ancient Greek thought, Aristippus of Cyrene (435-356 BCE) is usually identified as its earliest philosophical proponent. As a student of Socrates (c. 469–399 BCE)[2], he formulated a hedonistic egoism, arguing that personal pleasure is the highest good. He and the school of Cyrenaics he inspired focused on the gratification of immediate sensory pleasures with little concern for long-term consequences.[3] Plato (c. 428–347 BCE)[4] critiqued this view and proposed a more balanced pursuit of pleasure that aligns with virtue and rationality.[5] Following a similar approach, Aristotle (384–322 BCE)[6] associated pleasure with eudaimonia or the realization of natural human capacities, like reason.[7]
Epicurus (341–271 BCE) developed a nuanced form of hedonism that contrasts with the indulgence in immediate gratification proposed by the Cyrenaics. He argued that excessive desires and anxiety result in suffering, suggesting instead that people practice moderation, cultivate a tranquil state of mind, and avoid pain.[8] Following Antisthenes (c. 446—366 BCE), the Cynics warned against the pursuit of pleasure, viewing it as an obstacle to freedom.[9] The Stoics also dismissed a hedonistic lifestyle, focusing on virtue and integrity instead of seeking pleasure and avoiding pain.[10] Lucretius (c. 99–55 BCE) further expanded on Epicureanism, highlighting the importance of overcoming obstacles to personal happiness, such as the fear of death.[11]
In ancient India, the Charvaka school developed a hedonistic egoism, starting between the 6th and 5th centuries BCE. Their belief in the non-existence of God or an afterlife led them to advocate for enjoying life in the present to the fullest. Many other Indian traditions rejected this view and argued for a more ascetic lifestyle, a tendency common among Hindu, Buddhist, and Jain schools of thought.[12] In ancient China, Yang Zhu (c. 440–360 BCE)[a] argued that it is human nature to follow self-interest and satisfy personal desires. His hedonistic egoism inspired the subsequent school of Yangism.[14]
Medieval
[edit]Hedonist philosophy received less attention in medieval philosophy.[15] The early Christian philosopher Augustine of Hippo (354–430 CE),[16] was critical of the hedonism found in ancient Greek philosophy, warning of the dangers of earthly pleasures as obstacles to a spiritual life dedicated to God.[17] Thomas Aquinas (1225–1274 CE) developed a nuanced perspective on hedonism, characterized by some interpreters as spiritual hedonism. He held that humans are naturally inclined to seek happiness, arguing that the only way to truly satisfy this inclination is through a beatific vision of God.[18] In Islamic philosophy, al-Razi (c. 864—925 or 932 CE) was influenced by Epicureanism and defended a subtle form of hedonism, emphasizing moderation and the avoidance of excess.[19] Both al-Farabi (c. 878–950 CE)[20] and Avicenna (980–1037 CE)[21] argued that a form of intellectual happiness, reachable only in the afterlife, is the highest human good.[22]
Modern and contemporary
[edit]At the transition to the early modern period, Lorenzo Valla (c. 1406–1457) synthesized Epicurean hedonism with Christian ethics, suggesting that earthly pleasures associated with the senses are stepping stones to heavenly pleasures associated with Christian virtues.[23] Hedonism gained prominence during the Age of Enlightenment.[24] According to Thomas Hobbes's (1588–1679)[25] psychological hedonism, self-interest in what is pleasant is the root of all human motivation.[26] John Locke (1632-1704) stated that pleasure and pain are the only sources of good and evil.[27] Joseph Butler (1692–1752) formulated an objection to psychological hedonism, arguing that most desires, like wanting food or ambition, are not directed at pleasure itself but at external objects.[28] According to David Hume (1711–1776),[29] pleasure and pain are both the measure of ethical value and the main motivators fueling the passions.[30] The libertine novels of Marquis de Sade (1740–1814) depicted an extreme form of hedonism, emphasizing full indulgence in pleasurable activities without moral or sexual restraint.[31]
Jeremy Bentham (1748–1832)[32] developed an influential form of hedonism known as classical utilitarianism. One of his key innovations was the rejection of egoistic hedonism, advocating instead that individuals should promote the greatest good for the greatest number of people. He introduced the idea of the hedonic calculus to assess the value of an action based on the pleasurable and painful experiences it causes, relying on factors such as intensity and duration.[33] His student John Stuart Mill (1806–1873)[34] feared that Bentham's quantitative focus on intensity and duration would lead to an overemphasis on simple sensory pleasures. In response, he included the quality of pleasures as an additional factor, arguing that higher pleasures of the mind are more valuable than lower pleasures of the body.[35] Henry Sidgwick (1838–1900) further refined utilitarianism and clarified many of its core distinctions, such as the contrast between ethical and psychological hedonism and between egoistic and impartial hedonism.[36]
Friedrich Nietzsche (1844–1900)[37] rejected ethical hedonism and emphasized the importance of excellence and self-overcoming instead, stating that suffering is necessary to achieve greatness rather than something to be avoided.[38] An influential view about the nature of pleasure was developed by Franz Brentano (1838–1917)[39]. He dismissed the idea that pleasure is a sensation located in a specific area of the body, proposing instead that pleasure is a positive attitude that people can have towards various objects[b]—a position also later defended by Roderick Chisholm (1916–1999).[41] Sigmund Freud (1856–1939) developed a form of psychological hedonism in his early psychoanalytic theory. He stated that the pleasure principle describes how individuals seek immediate pleasure while avoiding pain whereas the reality principle represents the ability to postpone immediate gratification to avoid unpleasant long-term consequences.[42]
The 20th century also saw various criticisms of hedonism.[43] G. E. Moore (1873–1958)[44] rejected the hedonistic idea that pleasure is the only source of intrinsic value. According to his axiological pluralism, there are other sources, such as beauty and knowledge,[45] a criticism also shared by W. D. Ross (1877–1971).[46] Both C. D. Broad (1887–1971) and Richard Brandt (1910–1997) held that malicious pleasures, like enjoying the suffering of others, do not have inherent value.[47] Robert Nozick (1938–2002) used his experience machine thought experiment about simulated pleasure to argue against traditional hedonism, which ignores whether there is an authentic connection between pleasure and reality.[48]
In response to these and similar criticisms, Fred Feldman (1941–present) has developed a modified form of hedonism. Drawing on Brentano's attitudinal theory of pleasure, he has defended the idea that even though pleasure is the only source of intrinsic goodness, its value must be adjusted based on whether it is appropriate or deserved.[49] Peter Singer (1946–present) has expanded classical hedonism to include concerns about animal welfare.[c] He has advocated effective altruism, relying on empirical evidence and reason to prioritize actions that have the most significant positive impact.[51] Inspired by the philosophy of Albert Camus (1913–1960), Michel Onfray (1959–present) has aimed to rehabilitate Epicurean hedonism in a modern form.[52] David Pearce (1959–present) has developed a transhumanist version of hedonism, arguing for the use of modern technology, ranging from genetic engineering to nanotechnology, to reduce suffering and possibly eliminate it in the future.[53] The emergence of positive psychology at the turn of the 21st century has led to an increased interest in the empirical exploration of various topics of hedonism.[54]
References
[edit]Notes
[edit]- ^ Some interpreters argue that Yang Zhu is not a historical but a mythical figure.[13]
- ^ According to this view, for instance, the pleasure of reading a novel is a positive attitude towards the novel.[40]
- ^ Singer was initially a proponent of preference utilitarianism but has shifted his position in favor of hedonistic utilitarianism.[50]
Citations
[edit]- ^
- Porter 2001, p. 94
- Gosling 1998, Lead section
- Forgas & Baumeister 2018, Philosophical Antecedents
- Ackermann et al. 2008, p. 161
- ^ Dehsen 2013, p. 178
- ^
- Weijers, § 2b. Aritippus and the Cyrenaics
- Brandt 2006, p. 255
- Taylor 2005, p. 364
- Feldman 2001, p. 664–665
- ^ Dehsen 2013, p. 156
- ^
- Taylor 2005, p. 364
- Gosling 1998, § 1. History and Varieties of Hedonism
- ^ Dehsen 2013, p. 13
- ^
- Taylor 2005, p. 365
- Gosling 1998, § 1. History and Varieties of Hedonism
- ^
- Feldman 2001, p. 665–666
- Weijers, § 2c. Epicurus
- ^
- Gosling 1998, § 1. History and Varieties of Hedonism
- Piering, § 2. Basic Tenets
- ^
- Gosling 1998, § 1. History and Varieties of Hedonism
- Pigliucci, § 1d. Debates with Other Hellenistic Schools
- ^
- Simpson, § 2b.iii. Ethics
- Ewin 2002, p. 12
- Asmis 2018, pp. 142–143
- ^
- Weijers, § 2a. Cārvāka
- Riepe 1956, pp. 551–552
- Turner-Lauck Wernicki, § 2b. Materialism as Heresy
- Wilson 2015, § Introduction
- ^ Norden & Ivanhoe 2023, p. 111
- ^
- Roetz 1993, pp. 243–244
- Norden & Ivanhoe 2023, p. 111
- ^ Gosling 1998, § 1. History and Varieties of Hedonism
- ^ Dehsen 2013, p. 16
- ^
- Rist 1994, p. 158
- Alexander & Shelton 2014, p. 143
- ^
- Dewan 2008, pp. 101–103
- Wieland 2002, p. 59
- Zagzebski 2004, p. 350
- ^ Goodman 2020, pp. 387–389
- ^ Dehsen 2013, p. 63
- ^ Dehsen 2013, p. 19
- ^
- Germann 2021, § 2.1 Happiness and the afterlife
- McGinnis 2010, pp. 209–210
- ^ Nauta 2021, § 4. Moral Philosophy
- ^ Blakemore & Jennett 2001, § Pleasure and the Enlightenment
- ^ Dehsen 2013, p. 88
- ^
- Blakemore & Jennett 2001, § Pleasure and the Enlightenment
- Schmitter 2021, § 3. The Classification of the Passions
- Abizadeh 2018, p. 146
- ^
- Sheridan 2024, § 1.1 The puzzle of Locke’s moral philosophy
- Rossiter 2016, pp. 203, 207–208
- ^
- Stewart 1992, pp. 211–214
- Garrett 2023, § 5. Self-Love and Benevolence
- ^ Dehsen 2013, p. 91
- ^
- Blakemore & Jennett 2001, § Pleasure and the Enlightenment
- Dorsey 2015, pp. 245–246
- Merivale 2018, [https://books.google.com/books?id=IjZ7DwAAQBAJ&pg=PT54 § 3.1. The Prospect of Pain or Pleasure
- ^ Airaksinen 1995, pp. 11, 78–80
- ^ Dehsen 2013, p. 25
- ^
- Weijers, § 3a. Bentham
- Moore 2019, § 2.1 Ethical Hedonism and the Nature of Pleasure
- Feldman 2001, p. 666
- ^ Dehsen 2013, p. 132
- ^
- Weijers, § 3b. Mill
- Moore 2019, § 2.1 Ethical Hedonism and the Nature of Pleasure
- Gosling 1998, § 1. History and Varieties of Hedonism
- ^
- Crisp 2011, pp. 26–27
- Schultz 2024, Lead section, § 2.2 Reconstruction and Reconciliation
- Gosling 1998, § 1. History and Varieties of Hedonism
- ^ Dehsen 2013, p. 144
- ^
- Hassan 2023, p. 227
- Faustino 2024, § 2.1 Ethical Hedonism
- ^ Kriegel 2018, p. 2
- ^ Massin 2013, pp. 307–308
- ^
- Feldman 2001, p. 668
- Massin 2013, pp. 307–308
- Moore 2019, § 2.1 Ethical Hedonism and the Nature of Pleasure
- ^
- Wallwork 1991, p. 115
- Vittersø 2012, p. 475
- ^ Crisp 2011, pp. 43–44
- ^ Bunnin & Yu 2009, p. 443
- ^
- Hurka 2021, § 4. The Ideal
- Gosling 1998, § 1. History and Varieties of Hedonism
- Moore 2019, § 2.3 Other Arguments Against Ethical Hedonism
- Crisp 2011, p. 43
- ^
- Skelton 2022, § 4.2 The Good
- Mason 2023, § 1.1 Foundational and Non-foundational Pluralism
- Crisp 2011, p. 43
- ^
- Crisp 2011, pp. 43–44
- Hurka 2011a, p. 73
- Feldman 2002, p. 616
- Feldman 2004, p. 38
- ^
- Heathwood 2015, pp. 146–147
- Tiberius 2015, pp. 163–164
- ^
- ^
- Rice 2015, p. 379
- Schultz 2017, p. 514
- ^
- ^
- McClellan 2015, pp. xviii–xx
- Bishop 2020, pp. 110–112
- ^
- Adams IV 2004, p. 167
- Ross 2020, p. 134
- ^
- Crisp 2011, p. 44
- Peterson 2006, pp. 4–5, 78
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